{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]],"date-time":"2026-08-19T18:02:49Z","timestamp":1787162569474,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":134,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,9]],"date-time":"2022-11-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1667952000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation (NIBS) techniques, such as transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) and repetitive Magnetic Transcranial Stimulation (rTMS), are well-known non-pharmacological approaches to improve both motor and non-motor symptoms in patients with neurodegenerative disorders. Their use is of particular interest especially for the treatment of cognitive impairment in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease (AD), as well as axial disturbances in Parkinson\u2019s (PD), where conventional pharmacological therapies show very mild and short-lasting effects. However, their ability to interfere with disease progression over time is not well understood; recent evidence suggests that NIBS may have a neuroprotective effect, thus slowing disease progression and modulating the aggregation state of pathological proteins. In this narrative review, we gather current knowledge about neuroprotection and NIBS in neurodegenerative diseases (i.e., PD and AD), just mentioning the few results related to stroke. As further matter of debate, we discuss similarities and differences with Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)\u2014induced neuroprotective effects, and highlight possible future directions for ongoing clinical studies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232213775","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,10]],"date-time":"2022-11-10T01:48:08Z","timestamp":1668044888000},"page":"13775","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Neuroprotection and Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation: Facts or Fiction?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4562-009X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matteo","family":"Guidetti","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"\u201cAldo Ravelli\u201d Center for Neurotechnology and Experimental Brain Therapeutics, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, Via Antonio di Rudin\u00ec 8, 20142 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, 32, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alessandro","family":"Bertini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"\u201cAldo Ravelli\u201d Center for Neurotechnology and Experimental Brain Therapeutics, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, Via Antonio di Rudin\u00ec 8, 20142 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Clinical Neurology Unit, \u201cAzienda Socio-Sanitaria Territoriale Santi Paolo E Carlo\u201d, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, Via Antonio di Rudin\u00ec 8, 20142 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6161-6429","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Pirone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"\u201cAldo Ravelli\u201d Center for Neurotechnology and Experimental Brain Therapeutics, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, Via Antonio di Rudin\u00ec 8, 20142 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Clinical Neurology Unit, \u201cAzienda Socio-Sanitaria Territoriale Santi Paolo E Carlo\u201d, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, Via Antonio di Rudin\u00ec 8, 20142 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3573-7523","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gessica","family":"Sala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine and Surgery, Milan Center for Neuroscience (NeuroMI), University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, 20126 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2368-2393","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paola","family":"Signorelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, 20142 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7499-6600","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlo","family":"Ferrarese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine and Surgery, Milan Center for Neuroscience (NeuroMI), University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, 20126 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Neurology, ASST-Monza, San Gerardo Hospital, Monza, 20126 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1549-3851","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alberto","family":"Priori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"\u201cAldo Ravelli\u201d Center for Neurotechnology and Experimental Brain Therapeutics, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, Via Antonio di Rudin\u00ec 8, 20142 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Clinical Neurology Unit, \u201cAzienda Socio-Sanitaria Territoriale Santi Paolo E Carlo\u201d, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, Via Antonio di Rudin\u00ec 8, 20142 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8874-1070","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tommaso","family":"Bocci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"\u201cAldo Ravelli\u201d Center for Neurotechnology and Experimental Brain Therapeutics, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, Via Antonio di Rudin\u00ec 8, 20142 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Clinical Neurology Unit, \u201cAzienda Socio-Sanitaria Territoriale Santi Paolo E Carlo\u201d, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, Via Antonio di Rudin\u00ec 8, 20142 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1212\/01.wnl.0000317060.43722.a3","article-title":"Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Improves 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