{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T06:12:40Z","timestamp":1790662360472,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,12]],"date-time":"2022-11-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1668211200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Union","award":["TAMOP-4.2.4.A\/2-11\/1-2012-0001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TAMOP-4.2.4.A\/2-11\/1-2012-0001"]}]},{"name":"European Union","award":["GINOP-2.3.2-15-2016-00050"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GINOP-2.3.2-15-2016-00050"]}]},{"name":"State of Hungary","award":["TAMOP-4.2.4.A\/2-11\/1-2012-0001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TAMOP-4.2.4.A\/2-11\/1-2012-0001"]}]},{"name":"State of Hungary","award":["GINOP-2.3.2-15-2016-00050"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GINOP-2.3.2-15-2016-00050"]}]},{"name":"European Social Fund","award":["TAMOP-4.2.4.A\/2-11\/1-2012-0001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TAMOP-4.2.4.A\/2-11\/1-2012-0001"]}]},{"name":"European Social Fund","award":["GINOP-2.3.2-15-2016-00050"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GINOP-2.3.2-15-2016-00050"]}]},{"name":"European Union","award":["TAMOP-4.2.4.A\/2-11\/1-2012-0001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TAMOP-4.2.4.A\/2-11\/1-2012-0001"]}]},{"name":"European Union","award":["GINOP-2.3.2-15-2016-00050"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GINOP-2.3.2-15-2016-00050"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The SARS-CoV-2 virus causes various conditions, from asymptomatic infection to the fatal coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). An intact immune system can overcome SARS-CoV-2 and other viral infections. Defective natural, mainly interferon I- and III-dependent, responses may lead to the spread of the virus to multiple organs. Adaptive B- and T-cell responses, including memory, highly influence the severity and outcome of COVID-19. With respect to B-cell immunity, germinal centre formation is delayed or even absent in the most severe cases. Extrafollicular low-affinity anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody production will occur instead of specific, high-affinity antibodies. Helper and CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells become hyperactivated and then exhausted, leading to ineffective viral clearance from the body. The dysregulation of neutrophils and monocytes\/macrophages, as well as lymphocyte hyperreactivity, might lead to the robust production of inflammatory mediators, also known as cytokine storm. Eventually, the disruption of this complex network of immune cells and mediators leads to severe, sometimes fatal COVID-19 or another viral disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232213951","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,14]],"date-time":"2022-11-14T02:29:32Z","timestamp":1668392972000},"page":"13951","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Adaptive Immunity to Viruses: What Did We Learn from SARS-CoV-2 Infection?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Istv\u00e1n","family":"V\u00e1lyi-Nagy","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"South-Pest Hospital Centre, National Institute for Infectious Diseases and Haematology, 1097 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ferenc","family":"Uher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"South-Pest Hospital Centre, National Institute for Infectious Diseases and Haematology, 1097 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"\u00c9va","family":"R\u00e1k\u00f3czi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zolt\u00e1n","family":"Szekanecz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2012-7","article-title":"A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin","volume":"579","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30251-8","article-title":"Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: Implications for virus origins and receptor binding","volume":"395","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1648","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01648","article-title":"Cytokine Storm in COVID-19-Immunopathological Mechanisms, Clinical Considerations, and Therapeutic Approaches: The REPROGRAM Consortium Position Paper","volume":"11","author":"Bhaskar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. 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