{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T17:26:30Z","timestamp":1776101190718,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":180,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,30]],"date-time":"2022-11-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1669766400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Interstitial lung diseases (ILD) are relatively rare and sometimes become life threatening. In particular, rapidly progressive ILD, which frequently presents as acute lung injury (ALI) on lung histopathology, shows poor prognosis if proper and immediate treatments are not initiated. These devastating conditions include acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (AE-IPF), clinically amyopathic dermatomyositis (CADM), epidermal growth factor receptor-tyrosine kinase inhibitor (EGFR-TKI)-induced lung injury, and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2) infection named coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). In this review, clinical information, physical findings, laboratory examinations, and findings on lung high-resolution computed tomography and lung histopathology are presented, focusing on majorly damaged cells in each disease. Furthermore, treatments that should be immediately initiated in clinical practice for each disease are illustrated to save patients with these diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232315027","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,30]],"date-time":"2022-11-30T05:45:22Z","timestamp":1669787122000},"page":"15027","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Pathological Roles of Pulmonary Cells in Acute Lung Injury: Lessons from Clinical Practice"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3187-4264","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Noriyuki","family":"Enomoto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Second Division, Department of Internal Medicine, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu 431-3192, Japan"},{"name":"Health Administration Center, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Hamamatsu 431-3192, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-014-0109-y","article-title":"Autopsy analyses in acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"15","author":"Oda","year":"2014","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resinv.2021.05.008","article-title":"Serum S100A8 and S100A9 as prognostic biomarkers in acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"59","author":"Tanaka","year":"2021","journal-title":"Respir. Investig."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.3109\/s10165-011-0502-z","article-title":"Diffuse alveolar damage in patients with dermatomyositis: A six-case series","volume":"22","author":"Matsuki","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mod. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(03)12190-3","article-title":"Severe acute interstitial pneumonia and gefitinib","volume":"361","author":"Inoue","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200703-463PP","article-title":"Acute exacerbations of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"176","author":"Collard","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.2009-040GL","article-title":"An official ATS\/ERS\/JRS\/ALAT statement: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: Evidence-based guidelines for diagnosis and management","volume":"183","author":"Raghu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201604-0801CI","article-title":"Acute Exacerbation of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis. An International Working Group Report","volume":"194","author":"Collard","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1808","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.103.6.1808","article-title":"Acute exacerbation in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Analysis of clinical and pathologic findings in three cases","volume":"103","author":"Kondoh","year":"1993","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1397","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.177.12.1397a","article-title":"Basis of acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis in Japanese patients","volume":"177","author":"Azuma","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-016-0400-1","article-title":"Risk factors for an acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"17","author":"Kakugawa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1479972318809476","DOI":"10.1177\/1479972318809476","article-title":"Differences in clinical features of acute exacerbation between connective tissue disease-associated interstitial pneumonia and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"16","author":"Enomoto","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chron. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.2214\/ajr.168.1.8976924","article-title":"CT findings during phase of accelerated deterioration in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"168","author":"Akira","year":"1997","journal-title":"AJR Am. J. Roentgenol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200709-1365OC","article-title":"Computed tomography findings in acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"178","author":"Akira","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1186\/1465-9921-14-86","article-title":"Acute exacerbations in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"14","author":"Kim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"103","article-title":"Risk factors of acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"27","author":"Kondoh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sarcoidosis Vasc. Diffuse Lung Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00159709","article-title":"Acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: Incidence, risk factors and outcome","volume":"37","author":"Song","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1601339","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.01339-2016","article-title":"Acute exacerbations in the INPULSIS trials of nintedanib in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"49","author":"Collard","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201006-0894CI","article-title":"Clinical course and prediction of survival in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"183","author":"Ley","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201403-0566OC","article-title":"Epidemiologic survey of Japanese patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and investigation of ethnic differences","volume":"190","author":"Natsuizaka","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.06.00114004","article-title":"Acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: Frequency and clinical features","volume":"27","author":"Kim","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1753466620935774","DOI":"10.1177\/1753466620935774","article-title":"Acute exacerbation of unclassifiable idiopathic interstitial pneumonia: Comparison with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"14","author":"Enomoto","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.07-0323","article-title":"Acute exacerbation of interstitial pneumonia other than idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"132","author":"Park","year":"2007","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2008.12.019","article-title":"Acute exacerbation of interstitial pneumonia associated with collagen vascular diseases","volume":"103","author":"Suda","year":"2009","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Enomoto, N., Naoi, H., Mochizuka, Y., Isayama, T., Tanaka, Y., Fukada, A., Aono, Y., Katsumata, M., Yasui, H., and Mori, K. (2022). Frequency, proportion of PF-ILD, and prognostic factors in patients with acute exacerbation of ILD related to systemic autoimmune diseases. BMC Pulm. Med., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12890-022-02197-3"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-022-01978-y","article-title":"Acute exacerbation of rheumatoid arthritis-associated interstitial lung disease: Mortality and its prediction model","volume":"23","author":"Hozumi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1159\/000329891","article-title":"Acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: Outcome and prognostic factors","volume":"83","author":"Freynet","year":"2012","journal-title":"Respiration"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1186\/1465-9921-14-73","article-title":"Suspected acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis as an outcome measure in clinical trials","volume":"14","author":"Collard","year":"2013","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resinv.2021.06.007","article-title":"COVID-19 and acute exacerbation of interstitial lung disease","volume":"59","author":"Kondoh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Respir. Investig."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.202112-2765LE","article-title":"COVID-19 Vaccine in Patients with Exacerbation of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis","volume":"206","author":"Sgalla","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1604","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtcvs.2013.09.050","article-title":"Impact and predictors of acute exacerbation of interstitial lung diseases after pulmonary resection for lung cancer","volume":"147","author":"Sato","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1753","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2006.02.002","article-title":"Acute exacerbation of interstitial pneumonia following surgical lung biopsy","volume":"100","author":"Kondoh","year":"2006","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1186\/1465-9921-14-43","article-title":"The current position of surgical lung biopsy in the diagnosis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"14","author":"Kaarteenaho","year":"2013","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2011.11.006","article-title":"Acute exacerbation of IPF following diagnostic bronchoalveolar lavage procedures","volume":"106","author":"Sakamoto","year":"2012","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1134","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-05138-6","article-title":"New risk scoring system for predicting 3-month mortality after acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"12","author":"Sakamoto","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200810-1596OC","article-title":"Gene expression profiles of acute exacerbations of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"180","author":"Konishi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201510-2032PP","article-title":"Roles of Periostin in Respiratory Disorders","volume":"193","author":"Izuhara","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.21037\/atm-21-414","article-title":"Association of serum monomeric periostin level with outcomes of acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and fibrosing nonspecific interstitial pneumonia","volume":"9","author":"Shimizu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4916","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-08965-9","article-title":"Changes in blood Krebs von den Lungen-6 predict the mortality of patients with acute exacerbation of interstitial lung disease","volume":"12","author":"Choi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1159\/000287232","article-title":"Neutrophil adsorption by polymyxin B-immobilized fiber column for acute exacerbation in patients with interstitial pneumonia: A pilot study","volume":"29","author":"Abe","year":"2010","journal-title":"Blood Purif."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106534","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2021.106534","article-title":"Prognostic significance of bronchoalveolar lavage cellular analysis in patients with acute exacerbation of interstitial lung disease","volume":"186","author":"Kono","year":"2021","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schupp, J.C., Binder, H., Jager, B., Cillis, G., Zissel, G., Muller-Quernheim, J., and Prasse, A. (2015). Macrophage activation in acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0116775"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200808-1201OC","article-title":"Serum CC-chemokine ligand 18 concentration predicts outcome in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"179","author":"Prasse","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4595019","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/4595019","article-title":"Hemosiderin-Laden Macrophages in Bronchoalveolar Lavage: Predictive Role for Acute Exacerbation of Idiopathic Interstitial Pneumonias","volume":"2021","author":"Arai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Can. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2378","DOI":"10.1111\/crj.12918","article-title":"Prognostic evaluation of serum ferritin in acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"12","author":"Enomoto","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1165\/rcmb.2021-0418OC","article-title":"Multiplatform Single-Cell Analysis Identifies Immune Cell Types Enhanced in Pulmonary Fibrosis","volume":"67","author":"Serezani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e143226","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI143226","article-title":"Immune dysregulation as a driver of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"131","author":"Shenderov","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00050911","article-title":"Bronchoalveolar lavage pepsin in acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"39","author":"Lee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1558","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-29064-3","article-title":"Inhibition of lung microbiota-derived proapoptotic peptides ameliorates acute exacerbation of pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"13","author":"Yasuma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1539","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-15344-3","article-title":"A Staphylococcus pro-apoptotic peptide induces acute exacerbation of pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"11","author":"Kobayashi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1393","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1300052","article-title":"A protective Hsp70-TLR4 pathway in lethal oxidant lung injury","volume":"191","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201203-0506OC","article-title":"Patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis with antibodies to heat shock protein 70 have poor prognoses","volume":"187","author":"Kahloon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"916486","DOI":"10.1155\/2011\/916486","article-title":"Gradual increase of high mobility group protein b1 in the lungs after the onset of acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"2011","author":"Ebina","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pulm. Med."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L3","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.90637.2008","article-title":"Plasma biomarker profiles in acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"299","author":"Collard","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1159\/000330325","article-title":"Reduction in serum high mobility group box-1 level by polymyxin B-immobilized fiber column in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis with acute exacerbation","volume":"32","author":"Abe","year":"2011","journal-title":"Blood Purif."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1111\/resp.13634","article-title":"Serum high-mobility group box 1 is associated with the onset and severity of acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"25","author":"Yamaguchi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Respirology"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10484","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-46990-3","article-title":"Analysis of serum adiponectin and leptin in patients with acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"9","author":"Enomoto","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resinv.2015.04.005","article-title":"Risk factors for acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis--Extended analysis of pirfenidone trial in Japan","volume":"53","author":"Kondoh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Respir. Investig."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Enomoto, N., Mikamo, M., Oyama, Y., Kono, M., Hashimoto, D., Fujisawa, T., Inui, N., Nakamura, Y., Yasuda, H., and Kato, A. (2015). Treatment of acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis with direct hemoperfusion using a polymyxin B-immobilized fiber column improves survival. BMC Pulm. Med., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12890-015-0004-4"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e18","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.202202-0399ST","article-title":"Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (an Update) and Progressive Pulmonary Fibrosis in Adults: An Official ATS\/ERS\/JRS\/ALAT Clinical Practice Guideline","volume":"205","author":"Raghu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1968","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1113354","article-title":"Prednisone, azathioprine, and N-acetylcysteine for pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"366","author":"Raghu","year":"2012","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(21)00354-4","article-title":"Cyclophosphamide added to glucocorticoids in acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (EXAFIP): A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial","volume":"10","author":"Naccache","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201909-1818OC","article-title":"Thrombomodulin Alfa for Acute Exacerbation of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis. A Randomized, Double-Blind Placebo-controlled Trial","volume":"201","author":"Kondoh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15620","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-72607-1","article-title":"Antifibrotic treatment improves clinical outcomes in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: A propensity score matching analysis","volume":"10","author":"Kang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2016.02.001","article-title":"Nintedanib in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: Combined evidence from the TOMORROW and INPULSIS((R)) trials","volume":"113","author":"Richeldi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1487","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.51.6965","article-title":"Polymyxin B-immobilized fiber column (PMX) treatment for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis with acute exacerbation: A multicenter retrospective analysis","volume":"51","author":"Abe","year":"2012","journal-title":"Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1843.2008.01290.x","article-title":"Possible therapeutic effect of direct haemoperfusion with a polymyxin B immobilized fibre column (PMX-DHP) on pulmonary oxygenation in acute exacerbations of interstitial pneumonia","volume":"13","author":"Enomoto","year":"2008","journal-title":"Respirology"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1159\/000320128","article-title":"Evaluation of different perfusion durations in direct hemoperfusion with polymyxin B-immobilized fiber column therapy for acute exacerbation of interstitial pneumonias","volume":"32","author":"Kono","year":"2011","journal-title":"Blood Purif."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3551","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.55.6056","article-title":"Survival from an Acute Exacerbation of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis with or without Direct Hemoperfusion with a Polymyxin B-immobilized Fiber Column: A Retrospective Analysis","volume":"55","author":"Oishi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1357","DOI":"10.1111\/resp.13054","article-title":"Direct hemoperfusion with polymyxin B-immobilized fibre treatment for acute exacerbation of interstitial pneumonia","volume":"22","author":"Furusawa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Respirology"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)61079-4","article-title":"Interstitial lung disease in connective tissue disorders","volume":"380","author":"Fischer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1809","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.2009.114264","article-title":"Causes and risk factors for death in systemic sclerosis: A study from the EULAR Scleroderma Trials and Research (EUSTAR) database","volume":"69","author":"Tyndall","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1258","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201903-0486OC","article-title":"Tracking Impact of Interstitial Lung Disease in Systemic Sclerosis in a Complete Nationwide Cohort","volume":"200","author":"Fretheim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1636","DOI":"10.3899\/jrheum.101002","article-title":"Longterm survival and associated risk factors in patients with adult-onset idiopathic inflammatory myopathies and amyopathic dermatomyositis: Experience in a single institute in Japan","volume":"38","author":"Yamasaki","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200607-912OC","article-title":"Prognosis of fibrotic interstitial pneumonia: Idiopathic versus collagen vascular disease-related subtypes","volume":"175","author":"Park","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.3109\/03009741003604542","article-title":"Mortality and cause of death in Japanese patients with rheumatoid arthritis based on a large observational cohort, IORRA","volume":"39","author":"Nakajima","year":"2010","journal-title":"Scand. J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1005","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.06.00038806","article-title":"Interstitial lung diseases associated with amyopathic dermatomyositis","volume":"28","author":"Suda","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fujisawa, T., Hozumi, H., Kono, M., Enomoto, N., Hashimoto, D., Nakamura, Y., Inui, N., Yokomura, K., Koshimizu, N., and Toyoshima, M. (2014). Prognostic factors for myositis-associated interstitial lung disease. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0098824"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2518","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1903076","article-title":"Nintedanib for Systemic Sclerosis-Associated Interstitial Lung Disease","volume":"380","author":"Distler","year":"2019","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"58","article-title":"Differences in clinical features and prognosis of interstitial lung diseases between polymyositis and dermatomyositis","volume":"32","author":"Fujisawa","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2016.10.019","article-title":"Comprehensive assessment of myositis-specific autoantibodies in polymyositis\/dermatomyositis-associated interstitial lung disease","volume":"121","author":"Hozumi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1067\/mjd.2002.120621","article-title":"Would a new name hasten the acceptance of amyopathic dermatomyositis (dermatomyositis sine myositis) as a distinctive subset within the idiopathic inflammatory dermatomyopathies spectrum of clinical illness?","volume":"46","author":"Sontheimer","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/s13317-014-0060-4","article-title":"Myositis autoantibodies and clinical phenotypes","volume":"5","author":"Ghirardello","year":"2014","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Highlights"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hozumi, H., Enomoto, N., Kono, M., Fujisawa, T., Inui, N., Nakamura, Y., Sumikawa, H., Johkoh, T., Nakashima, R., and Imura, Y. (2015). Prognostic significance of anti-aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase antibodies in polymyositis\/dermatomyositis-associated interstitial lung disease: A retrospective case control study. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0120313"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjms.2017.07.013","article-title":"Clinical Heterogeneity of Interstitial Lung Disease in Polymyositis and Dermatomyositis Patients With or Without Specific Autoantibodies","volume":"355","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/kep375","article-title":"The RIG-I-like receptor IFIH1\/MDA5 is a dermatomyositis-specific autoantigen identified by the anti-CADM-140 antibody","volume":"49","author":"Nakashima","year":"2010","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2013.01.014","article-title":"The prognostic value of HRCT in myositis-associated interstitial lung disease","volume":"107","author":"Tanizawa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"290797","article-title":"Anti-MDA5 antibodies in a large Mediterranean population of adults with dermatomyositis","volume":"2014","author":"Martinez","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1278","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/ker518","article-title":"The diagnostic utility of anti-melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 antibody testing for predicting the prognosis of Japanese patients with DM","volume":"51","author":"Koga","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1726","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keq153","article-title":"Anti-MDA5 and anti-TIF1-gamma antibodies have clinical significance for patients with dermatomyositis","volume":"49","author":"Hoshino","year":"2010","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e001202","DOI":"10.1136\/rmdopen-2020-001202","article-title":"Seasonal and residential clustering at disease onset of anti-MDA5-associated interstitial lung disease","volume":"6","author":"Nishina","year":"2020","journal-title":"RMD Open"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R214","DOI":"10.1186\/ar3547","article-title":"Epidemiologic study of clinically amyopathic dermatomyositis and anti-melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 antibodies in central Japan","volume":"13","author":"Muro","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1380","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2011.05.006","article-title":"HRCT features of interstitial lung disease in dermatomyositis with anti-CADM-140 antibody","volume":"105","author":"Tanizawa","year":"2011","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2241","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.55.5774","article-title":"Radiological and Pathological Correlation in Anti-MDA5 Antibody-positive Interstitial Lung Disease: Rapidly Progressive Perilobular Opacities and Diffuse Alveolar Damage","volume":"55","author":"Chino","year":"2016","journal-title":"Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1336","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/kes012","article-title":"Hyperferritinaemia and macrophage activation in a patient with interstitial lung disease with clinically amyopathic DM","volume":"51","author":"Gono","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosario, C., Zandman-Goddard, G., Meyron-Holtz, E.G., D\u2019Cruz, D.P., and Shoenfeld, Y. (2013). The hyperferritinemic syndrome: Macrophage activation syndrome, Still\u2019s disease, septic shock and catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome. BMC Med., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1741-7015-11-185"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1713","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keq149","article-title":"Clinical manifestation and prognostic factor in anti-melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 antibody-associated interstitial lung disease as a complication of dermatomyositis","volume":"49","author":"Gono","year":"2010","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2143","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/kez185","article-title":"Successful classification of macrophage-mannose receptor CD206 in severity of anti-MDA5 antibody positive dermatomyositis associated ILD","volume":"58","author":"Horiike","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1093\/mr\/roab017","article-title":"Clinical significance of HScore and MS score comparison in the prognostic evaluation of anti-MDA5-positive patients with dermatomyositis and interstitial lung disease","volume":"32","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mod. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L709","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00341.2013","article-title":"Diverse macrophage populations mediate acute lung inflammation and resolution","volume":"306","author":"Aggarwal","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_100","first-page":"662","article-title":"The hyperferritinemic syndromes and CD163: A marker of macrophage activation","volume":"16","author":"Colafrancesco","year":"2014","journal-title":"Isr. Med. Assoc. J."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.3899\/jrheum.141307","article-title":"Elevated Serum Levels of Soluble CD163 in Polymyositis and Dermatomyositis: Associated with Macrophage Infiltration in Muscle Tissue","volume":"42","author":"Peng","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.3899\/jrheum.180825","article-title":"Clinical Significance of Serum Chitotriosidase Level in Anti-MDA5 Antibody-positive Dermatomyositis-associated Interstitial Lung Disease","volume":"46","author":"Fujisawa","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1394","DOI":"10.3899\/jrheum.170373","article-title":"Clinical Utility of YKL-40 in Polymyositis\/dermatomyositis-associated Interstitial Lung Disease","volume":"44","author":"Hozumi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1186\/s13075-016-1214-8","article-title":"Clinical significance of soluble CD163 in polymyositis-related or dermatomyositis-related interstitial lung disease","volume":"19","author":"Enomoto","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"806","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keab371","article-title":"Antiviral proinflammatory phenotype of monocytes in anti-MDA5 antibody-associated interstitial lung disease","volume":"61","author":"Gono","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1635","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-01685-5","article-title":"Chemokine profiles of interstitial pneumonia in patients with dermatomyositis: A case control study","volume":"7","author":"Oda","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808875","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2021.808875","article-title":"Low Circulating Monocytes Is in Parallel with Lymphopenia Which Predicts Poor Outcome in Anti-melanoma Differentiation-Associated Gene 5 Antibody-Positive Dermatomyositis-Associated Interstitial Lung Disease","volume":"8","author":"Lv","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20042433","article-title":"TIM-2 is expressed on B cells and in liver and kidney and is a receptor for H-ferritin endocytosis","volume":"202","author":"Chen","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3284","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keaa123","article-title":"Efficacy of plasma exchange in anti-MDA5-positive dermatomyositis with interstitial lung disease under combined immunosuppressive treatment","volume":"59","author":"Shirakashi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2196","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keu258","article-title":"Cytokine profiles in polymyositis and dermatomyositis complicated by rapidly progressive or chronic interstitial lung disease","volume":"53","author":"Gono","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/kez394","article-title":"Impact of adding tacrolimus to initial treatment of interstitial pneumonitis in polymyositis\/dermatomyositis: A single-arm clinical trial","volume":"59","author":"Takada","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1111\/resp.13978","article-title":"Prednisolone and tacrolimus versus prednisolone and cyclosporin A to treat polymyositis\/dermatomyositis-associated ILD: A randomized, open-label trial","volume":"26","author":"Fujisawa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Respirology"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fujisawa, T. (2021). Management of Myositis-Associated Interstitial Lung Disease. Medicina, 57.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina57040347"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resinv.2021.04.011","article-title":"2020 guide for the diagnosis and treatment of interstitial lung disease associated with connective tissue disease","volume":"59","author":"Kondoh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Respir. Investig."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1002\/art.41105","article-title":"Multicenter Prospective Study of the Efficacy and Safety of Combined Immunosuppressive Therapy with High-Dose Glucocorticoid, Tacrolimus, and Cyclophosphamide in Interstitial Lung Diseases Accompanied by Anti-Melanoma Differentiation-Associated Gene 5-Positive Dermatomyositis","volume":"72","author":"Tsuji","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/s13075-017-1506-7","article-title":"The predictive prognostic factors for polymyositis\/dermatomyositis-associated interstitial lung disease","volume":"20","author":"Sugiyama","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1007\/s00408-009-9146-6","article-title":"Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy for refractory interstitial lung disease associated with polymyositis\/dermatomyositis","volume":"187","author":"Suzuki","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lung"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3704","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keab928","article-title":"Intravenous immunoglobulin for interstitial lung diseases of anti-melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5-positive dermatomyositis","volume":"61","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1718","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1908681","article-title":"Nintedanib in Progressive Fibrosing Interstitial Lung Diseases","volume":"381","author":"Flaherty","year":"2019","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resinv.2013.09.001","article-title":"Consensus statement for the diagnosis and treatment of drug-induced lung injuries","volume":"51","author":"Kubo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Respir. Investig."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1584","DOI":"10.1111\/cas.12550","article-title":"Final safety and efficacy of erlotinib in the phase 4 POLARSTAR surveillance study of 10 708 Japanese patients with non-small-cell lung cancer","volume":"105","author":"Gemma","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cancer Sci."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1069","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/kep052","article-title":"Leflunomide-induced interstitial lung disease: Prevalence and risk factors in Japanese patients with rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"48","author":"Sawada","year":"2009","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1348","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200710-1501OC","article-title":"Interstitial lung disease in Japanese patients with lung cancer: A cohort and nested case-control study","volume":"177","author":"Kudoh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lungcan.2018.06.032","article-title":"Pneumonitis in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer patients treated with EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor: Meta-analysis of 153 cohorts with 15,713 patients: Meta-analysis of incidence and risk factors of EGFR-TKI pneumonitis in NSCLC","volume":"123","author":"Suh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lung Cancer"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lungcan.2015.01.026","article-title":"Pooled safety analysis of EGFR-TKI treatment for EGFR mutation-positive non-small cell lung cancer","volume":"88","author":"Takeda","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lung Cancer"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2008.01.005","article-title":"High-resolution computed tomography patterns and immunopathogenetic findings in drug-induced pneumonitis","volume":"102","author":"Takatani","year":"2008","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1136\/thorax.58.10.872","article-title":"Circulating KL-6 levels in patients with drug induced pneumonitis","volume":"58","author":"Ohnishi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.50.4508","article-title":"Clinical and radiological features of acute-onset diffuse interstitial lung diseases in patients with rheumatoid arthritis receiving treatment with biological agents: Importance of Pneumocystis pneumonia in Japan revealed by a multicenter study","volume":"50","author":"Kameda","year":"2011","journal-title":"Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-020-03335-7","article-title":"Gefitinib initiates sterile inflammation by promoting IL-1beta and HMGB1 release via two distinct mechanisms","volume":"12","author":"Noguchi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1321","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.27958","article-title":"Mechanisms of gefitinib-induced interstitial pneumonitis: Why and how the TKI perturbs innate immune systems?","volume":"12","author":"Kagi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Namba, T., Tanaka, K., Hoshino, T., Azuma, A., and Mizushima, T. (2011). Suppression of expression of heat shock protein 70 by gefitinib and its contribution to pulmonary fibrosis. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0027296"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fujibayashi, T., Hashimoto, N., Jijiwa, M., Hasegawa, Y., Kojima, T., and Ishiguro, N. (2009). Protective effect of geranylgeranylacetone, an inducer of heat shock protein 70, against drug-induced lung injury\/fibrosis in an animal model. BMC Pulm. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2466-9-45"},{"key":"ref_133","unstructured":"COVID-19 Excess Mortality Collaborators (2022). Estimating excess mortality due to the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic analysis of COVID-19-related mortality, 2020\u20132021. Lancet, 399, 1513\u20131536."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1182","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7137a4","article-title":"Mortality Risk Among Patients Hospitalized Primarily for COVID-19 during the Omicron and Delta Variant Pandemic Periods-United States, April 2020\u2013June 2022","volume":"71","author":"Adjei","year":"2022","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1113\/JP280769","article-title":"Silent hypoxaemia in COVID-19 patients","volume":"599","author":"Simonson","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e047007","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2020-047007","article-title":"Risk factors for severity on admission and the disease progression during hospitalisation in a large cohort of patients with COVID-19 in Japan","volume":"11","author":"Terada","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2021.05.003","article-title":"Pathophysiology of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome and COVID-19 Lung Injury","volume":"37","author":"Swenson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Crit. Care Clin."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1435","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.202202-137RL","article-title":"Mortality among Patients with COVID-19 and Different Interstitial Lung Disease Subtypes: A Multicenter Cohort Study","volume":"19","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1202","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.202008-1026OC","article-title":"COVID-19 versus Non-COVID-19 Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome: Comparison of Demographics, Physiologic Parameters, Inflammatory Biomarkers, and Clinical Outcomes","volume":"18","author":"Bain","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jjcc.2022.03.015","article-title":"The current status of thrombosis and anticoagulation therapy in patients with COVID-19 in Japan: From the CLOT-COVID study","volume":"80","author":"Nishimoto","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kint.2020.04.003","article-title":"Renal histopathological analysis of 26 postmortem findings of patients with COVID-19 in China","volume":"98","author":"Su","year":"2020","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1007\/s42058-021-00068-0","article-title":"COVID-19 pneumonia: Current evidence of chest imaging features, evolution and prognosis","volume":"4","author":"Larici","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chin. J. Acad. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5566826","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/5566826","article-title":"Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Fatal COVID-19-Associated Lung Injury","volume":"2021","author":"Obermayer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Dis. Markers"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1007\/s11604-020-00956-y","article-title":"Ultra-high-resolution computed tomography can demonstrate alveolar collapse in novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pneumonia","volume":"38","author":"Iwasawa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e200277","DOI":"10.1148\/ryct.2020200277","article-title":"Pulmonary Vascular Manifestations of COVID-19 Pneumonia","volume":"2","author":"Lang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Radiol. Cardiothorac. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1635","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00120.2017","article-title":"The endothelium in hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction","volume":"123","author":"Grimmer","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabj7790","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.abj7790","article-title":"Lung epithelial and endothelial damage, loss of tissue repair, inhibition of fibrinolysis, and cellular senescence in fatal COVID-19","volume":"13","author":"Walters","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2020.106239","article-title":"Pulmonary pathology of ARDS in COVID-19: A pathological review for clinicians","volume":"176","author":"Batah","year":"2021","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2002049","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.02049-2020","article-title":"Pathogenesis of COVID-19-induced ARDS: Implications for an ageing population","volume":"56","author":"Singer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1109","DOI":"10.1080\/07391102.2020.1822208","article-title":"Molecular basis of the potential interaction of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein to CD147 in COVID-19 associated-lymphopenia","volume":"40","author":"Helal","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Biomol. Struct. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1489","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.05.015","article-title":"Targets of T Cell Responses to SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus in Humans with COVID-19 Disease and Unexposed Individuals","volume":"181","author":"Grifoni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108863","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2021.108863","article-title":"Metabolic programs define dysfunctional immune responses in severe COVID-19 patients","volume":"34","author":"Thompson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2020.1747363","article-title":"Transcriptomic characteristics of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and peripheral blood mononuclear cells in COVID-19 patients","volume":"9","author":"Xiong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes. Infect."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.00050","article-title":"Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Viroporin 3a Activates the NLRP3 Inflammasome","volume":"10","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paolini, A., Borella, R., De Biasi, S., Neroni, A., Mattioli, M., Lo Tartaro, D., Simonini, C., Franceschini, L., Cicco, G., and Piparo, A.M. (2021). Cell Death in Coronavirus Infections: Uncovering Its Role during COVID-19. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10071585"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13001","DOI":"10.15252\/emmm.202013001","article-title":"Altered bioenergetics and mitochondrial dysfunction of monocytes in patients with COVID-19 pneumonia","volume":"12","author":"Gibellini","year":"2020","journal-title":"EMBO Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.08.002","article-title":"Elevated Calprotectin and Abnormal Myeloid Cell Subsets Discriminate Severe from Mild COVID-19","volume":"182","author":"Silvin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1522","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2020283","article-title":"Genomewide Association Study of Severe COVID-19 with Respiratory Failure","volume":"383","author":"Ellinghaus","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1623","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-1038-6","article-title":"A dynamic COVID-19 immune signature includes associations with poor prognosis","volume":"26","author":"Laing","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00827","article-title":"Reduction and Functional Exhaustion of T Cells in Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)","volume":"11","author":"Diao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2593","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-22811-y","article-title":"Identification and characterization of a SARS-CoV-2 specific CD8(+) T cell response with immunodominant features","volume":"12","author":"Gangaev","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1836","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2021.02.018","article-title":"Time-resolved systems immunology reveals a late juncture linked to fatal COVID-19","volume":"184","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.13254","article-title":"Quantitative and qualitative alterations of circulating myeloid cells and plasmacytoid DC in SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"161","author":"Peruzzi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.1008647","article-title":"The endogenous Toll-like receptor 4 agonist S100A8\/S100A9 (calprotectin) as innate amplifier of infection, autoimmunity, and cancer","volume":"86","author":"Ehrchen","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2011.03.013","article-title":"Excessive neutrophils and neutrophil extracellular traps contribute to acute lung injury of influenza pneumonitis","volume":"179","author":"Narasaraju","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.11.025","article-title":"Synergism of TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma Triggers Inflammatory Cell Death, Tissue Damage, and Mortality in SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Cytokine Shock Syndromes","volume":"184","author":"Karki","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-020-00334-0","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 triggers inflammatory responses and cell death through caspase-8 activation","volume":"5","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-020-03209-6","article-title":"Serum levels of receptor-interacting protein kinase-3 in patients with COVID-19","volume":"24","author":"Nakamura","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-020-0485-9","article-title":"The ORF3a protein of SARS-CoV-2 induces apoptosis in cells","volume":"17","author":"Ren","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2603","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2034577","article-title":"Safety and Efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 Vaccine","volume":"383","author":"Polack","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2035389","article-title":"Efficacy and Safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine","volume":"384","author":"Baden","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2224657","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2022.24657","article-title":"Association of Receiving a Fourth Dose of the BNT162b Vaccine with SARS-CoV-2 Infection among Health Care Workers in Israel","volume":"5","author":"Cohen","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barthwal, M.S., Dole, S., and Sahasrabudhe, T. (2022). Management of COVID-19: A comprehensive and practical approach. Med. J. Armed Forces India.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mjafi.2022.06.020"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1397","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2118542","article-title":"Oral Nirmatrelvir for High-Risk, Nonhospitalized Adults with COVID-19","volume":"386","author":"Hammond","year":"2022","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2116044","article-title":"Molnupiravir for Oral Treatment of COVID-19 in Nonhospitalized Patients","volume":"386","author":"Musungaie","year":"2022","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1407","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(21)00331-3","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of baricitinib for the treatment of hospitalised adults with COVID-19 (COV-BARRIER): A randomised, double-blind, parallel-group, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial","volume":"9","author":"Marconi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2031994","article-title":"Baricitinib plus Remdesivir for Hospitalized Adults with COVID-19","volume":"384","author":"Kalil","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"WHO Solidarity Trial Consortium, Pan, H., Peto, R., Henao-Restrepo, A.M., Preziosi, M.P., Sathiyamoorthy, V., Abdool Karim, Q., Alejandria, M.M., Hernandez Garcia, C., and Kieny, M.P. (2021). Repurposed Antiviral Drugs for COVID-19-Interim WHO Solidarity Trial Results. N. Engl. J. Med., 384, 497\u2013511.","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2023184"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2021436","article-title":"Dexamethasone in Hospitalized Patients with COVID-19","volume":"384","author":"Group","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1491","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2100433","article-title":"Interleukin-6 Receptor Antagonists in Critically Ill Patients with COVID-19","volume":"384","author":"Investigators","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/23\/23\/15027\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:30:17Z","timestamp":1760146217000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/23\/23\/15027"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,30]]},"references-count":180,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms232315027"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms232315027","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,30]]}}}