{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T04:52:32Z","timestamp":1760244752020,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":237,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,1]],"date-time":"2022-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1669852800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Operational Program Integrated Infrastructure","award":["ITMS2014+: 313011ATT8"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ITMS2014+: 313011ATT8"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>COVID-19, a significant global health threat, appears to be an immune-related disease. Failure of effective immune responses in initial stages of infection may contribute to development of cytokine storm and systemic inflammation with organ damage, leading to poor clinical outcomes. Disease severity and the emergence of new SARS-CoV-2 variants highlight the need for new preventative and therapeutic strategies to protect the immunocompromised population. Available data indicate that these people may benefit from adoptive transfer of allogeneic SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells isolated from convalescent individuals. This review first provides an insight into the mechanism of cytokine storm development, as it is directly related to the exhaustion of T cell population, essential for viral clearance and long-term antiviral immunity. Next, we describe virus-specific T lymphocytes as a promising and efficient approach for the treatment and prevention of severe COVID-19. Furthermore, other potential cell-based therapies, including natural killer cells, regulatory T cells and mesenchymal stem cells are mentioned. Additionally, we discuss fast and effective ways of producing clinical-grade antigen-specific T cells which can be cryopreserved and serve as an effective \u201coff-the-shelf\u201d approach for rapid treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection in case of sudden patient deterioration.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232315122","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,2]],"date-time":"2022-12-02T01:44:46Z","timestamp":1669945486000},"page":"15122","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Antigen-Specific T Cells and SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Current Approaches and Future Possibilities"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0804-4185","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zuzana","family":"Nova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Lambda Life a.s., Levocska 3617\/3, 851 01 Bratislava, Slovakia"},{"name":"GAMMA-ZA s.r.o., Kollarova 8, 911 01 Trencin, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9081-307X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tomas","family":"Zemanek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lambda Life a.s., Levocska 3617\/3, 851 01 Bratislava, Slovakia"},{"name":"GAMMA-ZA s.r.o., Kollarova 8, 911 01 Trencin, Slovakia"},{"name":"Department of Oncology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacky University Olomouc, University Hospital Olomouc, Hnevotinska 976\/3, 77900 Olomouc, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Norbert","family":"Botek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lambda Life a.s., Levocska 3617\/3, 851 01 Bratislava, Slovakia"},{"name":"GAMMA-ZA s.r.o., Kollarova 8, 911 01 Trencin, Slovakia"},{"name":"Department of Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Health Care and Social Work, Trnava University, Univerzitne Namestie 1, 918 43 Trnava, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00827","article-title":"Reduction and Functional Exhaustion of T Cells in Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)","volume":"11","author":"Diao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.13262","article-title":"T-cell responses and therapies against SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"162","author":"Toor","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.27405","article-title":"Role of toll-like receptors in modulation of cytokine storm signaling in SARS-CoV-2-induced COVID-19","volume":"94","author":"Manik","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-020-02902-w","article-title":"Clinical determinants for fatality of 44,672 patients with COVID-19","volume":"24","author":"Deng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1907","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)31187-9","article-title":"Clinical impact of COVID-19 on patients with cancer (CCC19): A cohort study","volume":"395","author":"Kuderer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1158\/2159-8290.CD-20-0422","article-title":"Patients with cancer appear more vulnerable to SARS-COV-2: A multicenter study during the COVID-19 outbreak","volume":"10","author":"Dai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cancer Discov."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e185","DOI":"10.1016\/S2352-3026(20)30429-4","article-title":"Clinical characteristics and outcomes of COVID-19 in haematopoietic stem-cell transplantation recipients: An observational cohort study","volume":"8","author":"Sharma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Haematol."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"e140329","article-title":"Severe immunosuppression and not a cytokine storm characterizes COVID-19 infections","volume":"5","author":"Remy","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2020.10.060","article-title":"T cell immunity to SARS-CoV-2 following natural infection and vaccination","volume":"538","author":"DiPiazza","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3331","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2016-01-628982","article-title":"T cells for viral infections after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant","volume":"127","author":"Bollard","year":"2016","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.00556","article-title":"Adoptive T Cell Therapy for Epstein\u2013Barr Virus Complications in Patients With Primary Immunodeficiency Disorders","volume":"9","author":"McLaughlin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1443","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1801540","article-title":"Allogeneic BK Virus\u2013Specific T Cells for Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy","volume":"379","author":"Muftuoglu","year":"2018","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3547","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2017.73.0655","article-title":"Off-the-Shelf Virus-Specific T Cells to Treat BK Virus, Human Herpesvirus 6, Cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr Virus, and Adenovirus Infections After Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem-Cell Transplantation","volume":"35","author":"Tzannou","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4283","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2009-07-232454","article-title":"Cytotoxic T lymphocyte therapy with donor T cells prevents and treats adenovirus and Epstein-Barr virus infections after haploidentical and matched unrelated stem cell transplantation","volume":"114","author":"Leen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1622","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2012.130","article-title":"Rapidly Generated Multivirus-specific Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes for the Prophylaxis and Treatment of Viral Infections","volume":"20","author":"Gerdemann","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2113","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2013.151","article-title":"Safety and clinical efficacy of rapidly-generated trivirus-directed T cells as treatment for adenovirus, EBV, and CMV infections after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant","volume":"21","author":"Gerdemann","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3745","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2012-08-448977","article-title":"Donor-derived CMV-specific T cells reduce the requirement for CMV-directed pharmacotherapy after allogeneic stem cell transplantation","volume":"121","author":"Blyth","year":"2013","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242ra83","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.3008825","article-title":"Activity of Broad-Spectrum T Cells as Treatment for AdV, EBV, CMV, BKV, and HHV6 Infections after HSCT","volume":"6","author":"Papadopoulou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2009-08-239186","article-title":"Long-term outcome of EBV-specific T-cell infusions to prevent or treat EBV-related lymphoproliferative disease in transplant recipients","volume":"115","author":"Heslop","year":"2010","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1111\/bjh.16053","article-title":"T-cell receptor sequencing demonstrates persistence of virus-specific T cells after antiviral immunotherapy","volume":"187","author":"Keller","year":"2019","journal-title":"Br. J. Haematol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2550-z","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2-specific T cell immunity in cases of COVID-19 and SARS, and uninfected controls","volume":"584","author":"Tan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(20)30354-4","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 viral load predicts COVID-19 mortality","volume":"8","author":"Pujadas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2021.05.010","article-title":"Longitudinal analysis reveals that delayed bystander CD8+ T cell activation and early immune pathology distinguish severe COVID-19 from mild disease","volume":"54","author":"Bergamaschi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abc6027","article-title":"Impaired type I interferon activity and inflammatory responses in severe COVID-19 patients","volume":"369","author":"Hadjadj","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.04.026","article-title":"Imbalanced Host Response to SARS-CoV-2 Drives Development of COVID19","volume":"181","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abb8925","article-title":"Cytokine release syndrome in severe COVID19","volume":"368","author":"Moore","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1086\/314602","article-title":"Elevated Serum Cytokines Are Associated with Cytomegalovirus Infection and Disease in Bone Marrow Transplant Recipients","volume":"179","author":"Humar","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1503","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)61048-X","article-title":"Adult haemophagocytic syndrome","volume":"383","author":"Khamashta","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2021.109432","article-title":"Generation of glucocorticoid-resistant SARS-CoV-2 T cells for adoptive cell therapy","volume":"36","author":"Basar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-065X.2007.00562.x","article-title":"Recognition of viruses by innate immunity","volume":"220","author":"Takeuchi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.5694\/mja2.50674","article-title":"COVID-19 acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS): Clinical features and differences from typical pre-COVID-19 ARDS","volume":"213","author":"Gibson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. J. Aust."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2021.112158","article-title":"A mini-review on the impact of COVID 19 on vital organs","volume":"143","author":"Shah","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabd5487","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.abd5487","article-title":"Immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection in hospitalized pediatric and adult patients","volume":"12","author":"Pierce","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4678","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-24938-4","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 specific T cell responses are lower in children and increase with age and time after infection","volume":"12","author":"Cohen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-021-01123-9","article-title":"Immunology of SARS-CoV-2 infection in children","volume":"23","author":"Chou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arcmed.2021.07.002","article-title":"COVID-19 in Children: Where do we Stand?","volume":"53","author":"Nikolopoulou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arch. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"FSO605","DOI":"10.2144\/fsoa-2020-0091","article-title":"Toll-like receptors and COVID-19: A two-faced story with an exciting ending","volume":"6","author":"Onofrio","year":"2020","journal-title":"Future Sci. OA"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2735","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.26826","article-title":"Role of Toll-like receptors in the pathogenesis of COVID-19","volume":"93","author":"Khanmohammadi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2105","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25987","article-title":"In silico studies on the comparative characterization of the interactions of SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein with ACE-2 receptor homologs and human TLRs","volume":"92","author":"Choudhury","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104587","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2020.104587","article-title":"Immunoinformatics approach to understand molecular interaction between multi-epitopic regions of SARS-CoV-2 spike-protein with TLR4\/MD-2 complex","volume":"85","author":"Bhattacharya","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2592","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1582-4934.2010.01127.x","article-title":"Endogenous toll-like receptor ligands and their biological significance","volume":"14","author":"Yu","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Cell Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20031023","article-title":"LPS-TLR4 Signaling to IRF-3\/7 and NF-\u03baB Involves the Toll Adapters TRAM and TRIF","volume":"198","author":"Fitzgerald","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2079","article-title":"The family of five: TIR-domain-containing adaptors in Toll-like receptor signalling","volume":"7","author":"Bowie","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ribero, M.S., Jouvenet, N., Dreux, M., and Nisole, S. (2020). Interplay between SARS-CoV-2 and the type I interferon response. PLoS Pathog., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1008737"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-021-00679-0","article-title":"The signal pathways and treatment of cytokine storm in COVID-19","volume":"6","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro.2016.81","article-title":"SARS and MERS: Recent insights into emerging coronaviruses","volume":"14","author":"Falzarano","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1767","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(03)13412-5","article-title":"Clinical progression and viral load in a community outbreak of coronavirus-associated SARS pneumonia: A prospective study","volume":"361","author":"Peiris","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1358","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.326.7403.1358","article-title":"Haematological manifestations in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome: Retrospective analysis","volume":"326","author":"Wong","year":"2003","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-020-00840-x","article-title":"Untuned antiviral immunity in COVID-19 revealed by temporal type I\/III interferon patterns and flu comparison","volume":"22","author":"Galani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-017-0629-x","article-title":"Pathogenic human coronavirus infections: Causes and consequences of cytokine storm and immunopathology","volume":"39","author":"Channappanavar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Semin. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8874339","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/8874339","article-title":"COVID-19 and Toll-Like Receptor 4 (TLR4): SARS-CoV-2 May Bind and Activate TLR4 to Increase ACE2 Expression, Facilitating Entry and Causing Hyperinflammation","volume":"2021","author":"Aboudounya","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.02.052","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Cell Entry Depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and Is Blocked by a Clinically Proven Protease Inhibitor","volume":"181","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102976","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2020.102976","article-title":"Heterogeneous expression of the SARS-Coronavirus-2 receptor ACE2 in the human respiratory tract","volume":"60","author":"Ortiz","year":"2020","journal-title":"eBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1007\/s11684-020-0754-0","article-title":"Single-cell RNA-seq data analysis on the receptor ACE2 expression reveals the potential risk of different human organs vulnerable to 2019-nCoV infection","volume":"14","author":"Zou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1038\/s41580-021-00418-x","article-title":"Mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 entry into cells","volume":"23","author":"Jackson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1016","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.04.035","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Receptor ACE2 Is an Interferon-Stimulated Gene in Human Airway Epithelial Cells and Is Detected in Specific Cell Subsets across Tissues","volume":"181","author":"Ziegler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101744","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2020.101744","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Targets by the pscRNA Profiling of ACE2, TMPRSS2 and Furin Proteases","volume":"23","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bertram, S., Heurich, A., Lavender, H., Gierer, S., Danisch, S., Perin, P., Lucas, J.M., Nelson, P.S., P\u00f6hlmann, S., and Soilleux, E.J. (2012). Influenza and SARS-Coronavirus Activating Proteases TMPRSS2 and HAT Are Expressed at Multiple Sites in Human Respiratory and Gastrointestinal Tracts. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0035876"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1182","DOI":"10.1002\/mc.22550","article-title":"Targeting proprotein convertases in furin-rich lung cancer cells results in decreased in vitro and in vivo growth","volume":"56","author":"Bassi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Carcinog."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104742","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2020.104742","article-title":"The spike glycoprotein of the new coronavirus 2019-nCoV contains a furin-like cleavage site absent in CoV of the same clade","volume":"176","author":"Coutard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1038\/nature03712","article-title":"Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 protects from severe acute lung failure","volume":"436","author":"Imai","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.00317","article-title":"ACE2, Much More Than Just a Receptor for SARS-COV-2","volume":"10","author":"Samavati","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576745","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.576745","article-title":"ACE2\/ADAM17\/TMPRSS2 Interplay May Be the Main Risk Factor for COVID-19","volume":"11","author":"Zipeto","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4058","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-07918-6","article-title":"ACE2 protein expression in lung tissues of severe COVID-19 infection","volume":"12","author":"Gheware","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1627","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00038.2017","article-title":"Angiotensin II Signal Transduction: An Update on Mechanisms of Physiology and Pathophysiology","volume":"98","author":"Forrester","year":"2018","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1007\/s10753-020-01337-3","article-title":"Inflammation Triggered by SARS-CoV-2 and ACE2 Augment Drives Multiple Organ Failure of Severe COVID-19: Molecular Mechanisms and Implications","volume":"44","author":"Iwasaki","year":"2020","journal-title":"Inflammation"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1159\/000218173","article-title":"Angiotensin II Induces Inflammatory Response Partly Via Toll-Like Receptor 4-Dependent Signaling Pathway in Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells","volume":"23","author":"Ji","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cell Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.omtm.2020.05.013","article-title":"Airways Expression of SARS-CoV-2 Receptor, ACE2, and TMPRSS2 Is Lower in Children Than Adults and Increases with Smoking and COPD","volume":"18","author":"Alabed","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Ther.\u2014Methods Clin. Dev."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2427","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.8707","article-title":"Nasal Gene Expression of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 in Children and Adults","volume":"323","author":"Bunyavanich","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Muus, C., Luecken, M., Eraslan, G., Waghray, A., Heimberg, G., Sikkema, L., Kobayashi, Y., Vaishnav, E.D., Subramanian, A., and Smilie, C. (2020). Integrated analyses of single-cell atlases reveal age, gender, and smoking status associations with cell type-specific expression of mediators of SARS-CoV-2 viral entry and highlights inflammatory programs in putative target cells. BioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.04.19.049254"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e62522","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.62522","article-title":"Single-cell multiomic profiling of human lungs reveals cell-type-specific and age-dynamic control of SARS-CoV2 host genes","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e140766","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI140766","article-title":"Age-determined expression of priming protease TMPRSS2 and localization of SARS-CoV-2 in lung epithelium","volume":"131","author":"Schuler","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1489","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.05.015","article-title":"Targets of T Cell Responses to SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus in Humans with COVID-19 Disease and Unexposed Individuals","volume":"181","author":"Grifoni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1038\/s41421-021-00321-x","article-title":"Dynamics of TCR repertoire and T cell function in COVID-19 convalescent individuals","volume":"7","author":"Luo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Discov."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-021-00823-w","article-title":"T cell receptor (TCR) signaling in health and disease","volume":"6","author":"Shah","year":"2021","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shatrova, A.N., Mityushova, E.V., Vassilieva, I.O., Aksenov, N.D., Zenin, V.V., Nikolsky, N.N., and Marakhova, I.I. (2016). Time-Dependent Regulation of IL-2R \u03b1-Chain (CD25) Expression by TCR Signal Strength and IL-2-Induced STAT5 Signaling in Activated Human Blood T Lymphocytes. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0167215"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12457","DOI":"10.1111\/jcmm.15771","article-title":"Naturally activated adaptive immunity in COVID-19 patients","volume":"24","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Cell Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6136","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.172.10.6136","article-title":"IL-2 Secretion by CD4+ T Cells In Vivo Is Rapid, Transient, and Influenced by TCR-Specific Competition","volume":"172","author":"Sojka","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589380","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.589380","article-title":"T-Cell Hyperactivation and Paralysis in Severe COVID-19 Infection Revealed by Single-Cell Analysis","volume":"11","author":"Kalfaoglu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2006.05.042","article-title":"FOXP3 Controls Regulatory T Cell Function through Cooperation with NFAT","volume":"126","author":"Wu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2012.00051","article-title":"Molecular Mechanisms of Treg-Mediated T Cell Suppression","volume":"3","author":"Schmidt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.13178","article-title":"Control of regulatory T-cell differentiation and function by T-cell receptor signalling and Foxp3 transcription factor complexes","volume":"160","author":"Ono","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-med-012017-043208","article-title":"CD8 T Cell Exhaustion in Chronic Infection and Cancer: Opportunities for Interventions","volume":"69","author":"Hashimoto","year":"2018","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Med."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E3246","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1421463112","article-title":"Inflammation negatively regulates FOXP3 and regulatory T-cell function via DBC1","volume":"112","author":"Gao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.10.001","article-title":"Imbalance of Regulatory and Cytotoxic SARS-CoV-2-Reactive CD4+ T Cells in COVID-19","volume":"183","author":"Meckiff","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.2A0514-257RR","article-title":"Proprotein convertase FURIN regulates T cell receptor-induced transactivation","volume":"98","author":"Ortutay","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtauto.2021.100130","article-title":"Regulatory T cell function in autoimmune disease","volume":"4","author":"Rajendiran","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Transl. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smim.2019.101325","article-title":"Immune regulation and cytotoxic T cell activation of IL-10 agonists\u2014Preclinical and clinical experience","volume":"44","author":"Oft","year":"2019","journal-title":"Semin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2018.01.006","article-title":"Interleukin-10 Directly Inhibits CD8+ T Cell Function by Enhancing N-Glycan Branching to Decrease Antigen Sensitivity","volume":"48","author":"Smith","year":"2018","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2461","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20061462","article-title":"Resolution of a chronic viral infection after interleukin-10 receptor blockade","volume":"203","author":"Ejrnaes","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2007.02.006","article-title":"IL-10, T cell exhaustion and viral persistence","volume":"15","author":"Blackburn","year":"2007","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4319","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1403004","article-title":"Acute Viral Respiratory Infection Rapidly Induces a CD8+ T Cell Exhaustion\u2013like Phenotype","volume":"195","author":"Erickson","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2020.10.012","article-title":"A Potential Role of Interleukin 10 in COVID-19 Pathogenesis","volume":"42","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Immunol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3434","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-17292-4","article-title":"Marked T cell activation, senescence, exhaustion and skewing towards TH17 in patients with COVID-19 pneumonia","volume":"11","author":"Meschiari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1623","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-1038-6","article-title":"A dynamic COVID-19 immune signature includes associations with poor prognosis","volume":"26","author":"Laing","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_96","first-page":"e142167","article-title":"High levels of SARS-CoV-2\u2013specific T cells with restricted functionality in severe courses of COVID-19","volume":"5","author":"Schub","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"998","DOI":"10.1093\/nsr\/nwaa041","article-title":"Pathogenic T-cells and inflammatory monocytes incite inflammatory storms in severe COVID-19 patients","volume":"7","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Natl. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2020.06.024","article-title":"Next-Generation Sequencing of T and B Cell Receptor Repertoires from COVID-19 Patients Showed Signatures Associated with Severity of Disease","volume":"53","author":"Paschold","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-020-0402-2","article-title":"Functional exhaustion of antiviral lymphocytes in COVID-19 patients","volume":"17","author":"Zheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3862","article-title":"Molecular and cellular insights into T cell exhaustion","volume":"15","author":"Wherry","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8161","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00889-12","article-title":"Progressive Loss of Memory T Cell Potential and Commitment to Exhaustion during Chronic Viral Infection","volume":"86","author":"Angelosanto","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1675","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI26856","article-title":"Reprogramming of antiviral T cells prevents inactivation and restores T cell activity during persistent viral infection","volume":"116","author":"Brooks","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2016.07.021","article-title":"T Cell Factor 1-Expressing Memory-like CD8+ T Cells Sustain the Immune Response to Chronic Viral Infections","volume":"45","author":"Utzschneider","year":"2016","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-020-0401-3","article-title":"Elevated exhaustion levels and reduced functional diversity of T cells in peripheral blood may predict severe progression in COVID-19 patients","volume":"17","author":"Zheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"810","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiab595","article-title":"T-Cell Expression of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 and Binding of Severe Acute Respiratory Coronavirus 2","volume":"225","author":"Welch","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1769","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-020-06127-x","article-title":"Severe COVID-19 is associated with deep and sustained multifaceted cellular immunosuppression","volume":"46","author":"Jeannet","year":"2020","journal-title":"Intensiv. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2588-y","article-title":"Longitudinal analyses reveal immunological misfiring in severe COVID-19","volume":"584","author":"Lucas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1663","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2005073","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Children","volume":"382","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e100","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0000000000002740","article-title":"Clinical Analysis of 25 COVID-19 Infections in Children","volume":"39","author":"Bai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e148694","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.148694","article-title":"Natural mucosal barriers and COVID-19 in children","volume":"6","author":"Pierce","year":"2021","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1089\/jir.2020.0214","article-title":"Antagonism of Type I Interferon by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2","volume":"40","author":"Xia","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Interf. Cytokine Res."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabd4585","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abd4585","article-title":"Auto-antibodies against type I IFNs in patients with life-threatening COVID-19","volume":"370","author":"Bastard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01281-09","article-title":"Cellular Immune Responses to Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV) Infection in Senescent BALB\/c Mice: CD4+ T Cells Are Important in Control of SARS-CoV Infection","volume":"84","author":"Chen","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2009.07.014","article-title":"Elucidating the molecular physiopathology of acute respiratory distress syndrome in severe acute respiratory syndrome patients","volume":"145","author":"Kong","year":"2009","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2249.2004.02415.x","article-title":"Plasma inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in severe acute respiratory syndrome","volume":"136","author":"Wong","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1089\/jir.2006.26.309","article-title":"SARS-CoV Virus-Host Interactions and Comparative Etiologies of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome as Determined by Transcriptional and Cytokine Profiling of Formalin-Fixed Paraffin-Embedded Tissues","volume":"26","author":"Baas","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Interf. Cytokine Res."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2006.05.007","article-title":"Is there an ideal animal model for SARS?","volume":"14","author":"Subbarao","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1007\/s12026-014-8534-z","article-title":"T cell-mediated immune response to respiratory coronaviruses","volume":"59","author":"Channappanavar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2021.03.005","article-title":"Longitudinal profiling of respiratory and systemic immune responses reveals myeloid cell-driven lung inflammation in severe COVID-19","volume":"54","author":"Szabo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-0901-9","article-title":"Single-cell landscape of bronchoalveolar immune cells in patients with COVID-19","volume":"26","author":"Liao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1280","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01386-7","article-title":"CD8+ T cells contribute to survival in patients with COVID-19 and hematologic cancer","volume":"27","author":"Bange","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"996","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.09.038","article-title":"Antigen-Specific Adaptive Immunity to SARS-CoV-2 in Acute COVID-19 and Associations with Age and Disease Severity","volume":"183","author":"Moderbacher","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabf4063","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abf4063","article-title":"Immunological memory to SARS-CoV-2 assessed for up to 8 months after infection","volume":"371","author":"Dan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20202617","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20202617","article-title":"Highly functional virus-specific cellular immune response in asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"218","author":"Clapham","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108728","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2021.108728","article-title":"Early induction of functional SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells associates with rapid viral clearance and mild disease in COVID-19 patients","volume":"34","author":"Tan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofab353","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofab353","article-title":"Suboptimal Response to Coronavirus Disease 2019 Messenger RNA Vaccines in Patients With Hematologic Malignancies: A Need for Vigilance in the Postmasking Era","volume":"8","author":"Agha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annonc.2021.04.019","article-title":"Impaired immunogenicity of BNT162b2 anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccine in patients treated for solid tumors","volume":"32","author":"Chamorey","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2021.05.029","article-title":"Immunogenicity of Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine in patients with inborn errors of immunity","volume":"148","author":"Hagin","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3094","DOI":"10.1038\/s41409-021-01466-9","article-title":"Antibody responses to SARS-CoV2 vaccination in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients","volume":"56","author":"Mamez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bone Marrow Transplant."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2021.08.016","article-title":"Antibody responses to the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine in individuals with various inborn errors of immunity","volume":"148","author":"Delmonte","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1990","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01507-2","article-title":"Cellular and humoral immune responses following SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination in patients with multiple sclerosis on anti-CD20 therapy","volume":"27","author":"Apostolidis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1498","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2015.12.1311","article-title":"Adoptive immunotherapy for primary immunodeficiency disorders with virus-specific T lymphocytes","volume":"137","author":"Naik","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2008","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2016.02.063","article-title":"Memory T cell responses targeting the SARS coronavirus persist up to 11 years post-infection","volume":"34","author":"Ng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaan5393","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.aan5393","article-title":"Recovery from the Middle East respiratory syndrome is associated with antibody and T cell responses","volume":"2","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4043","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-24377-1","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2-specific T cell memory is sustained in COVID-19 convalescent patients for 10 months with successful development of stem cell-like memory T cells","volume":"12","author":"Jung","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiac050","article-title":"Duration of Humoral Immunity and Cross-Neutralizing Activity Against the Alpha, Beta, and Delta Variants After Wild-Type Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Infection: A Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"226","author":"Noh","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1480","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbmt.2013.07.015","article-title":"CMV-, EBV- and ADV-Specific T Cell Immunity: Screening and Monitoring of Potential Third-Party Donors to Improve Post-Transplantation Outcome","volume":"19","author":"Sukdolak","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biol. Blood Marrow Transplant."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-014-0336-5","article-title":"Rapid generation of clinical-grade antiviral T cells: Selection of suitable T-cell donors and GMP-compliant manufacturing of antiviral T cells","volume":"12","author":"Tischer","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.2021012249","article-title":"Cellular therapies for the treatment and prevention of SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"140","author":"Conway","year":"2022","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1093\/intimm\/dxs059","article-title":"Establishment of the reversible peptide-major histocompatibility complex (pMHC) class I Histamer technology: Tool for visualization and selection of functionally active antigen-specific CD8+ T lymphocytes","volume":"24","author":"Tischer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3565","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2003-09-3056","article-title":"Rapid generation of combined CMV-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell lines for adoptive transfer into recipients of allogeneic stem cell transplants","volume":"103","author":"Rauser","year":"2004","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20040613","article-title":"Adoptive transfer of cytomegalovirus-specific CTL to stem cell transplant patients after selection by HLA\u2013peptide tetramers","volume":"202","author":"Cobbold","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_143","unstructured":"(2022, September 09). Committee for Advanced Therapies of the European Medicines Agency. Available online: www.ema.europa.eu\/docs\/en_GB\/document_library\/Report\/2013\/05\/WC500143582.pdf."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21137","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M110.197657","article-title":"Inflammatory Cytokines Determine the Susceptibility of Human CD8 T Cells to Fas-mediated Activation-induced Cell Death through Modulation of FasL and c-FLIPS Expression","volume":"286","author":"Krall","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e101","DOI":"10.1002\/acg2.101","article-title":"Rapid production of clinical-grade SARS-CoV-2 specific T cells","volume":"3","author":"Leung","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Cell Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"598402","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.598402","article-title":"Rapid GMP-Compliant Expansion of SARS-CoV-2\u2013Specific T Cells From Convalescent Donors for Use as an Allogeneic Cell Therapy for COVID-19","volume":"11","author":"Cooper","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13602","DOI":"10.1111\/tid.13602","article-title":"Adoptive transfer of ex vivo expanded SARS-CoV-2-specific cytotoxic lymphocytes: A viable strategy for COVID-19 immunosuppressed patients?","volume":"23","author":"Guerreiro","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transpl. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garc\u00eda-R\u00edos, E., Leivas, A., Mancebo, F.J., S\u00e1nchez-Vega, L., Lanzarot, D., Aguado, J.M., Mart\u00ednez-L\u00f3pez, J., Paciello, M.L., and P\u00e9rez-Romero, P. (2022). Isolation of Functional SARS-CoV-2 Antigen-Specific T-Cells with Specific Viral Cytotoxic Activity for Adoptive Therapy of COVID-19. Biomedicines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines10030630"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867042","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2022.867042","article-title":"Rapid Manufacturing of Highly Cytotoxic Clinical-Grade SARS-CoV-2-specific T Cell Products Covering SARS-CoV-2 and Its Variants for Adoptive T Cell Therapy","volume":"10","author":"Bonifacius","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2002-04-1200","article-title":"G-CSF as immune regulator in T cells expressing the G-CSF receptor: Implications for transplantation and autoimmune diseases","volume":"102","author":"Franzke","year":"2003","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2009.03.509","article-title":"G-CSF induces a potentially tolerant gene and immunophenotype profile in T cells in vivo","volume":"132","author":"Toh","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bunse, C.E., Borchers, S., Varanasi, P.R., Tischer, S., Figueiredo, C., Immenschuh, S., Kalinke, U., Koehl, U., Goudeva, L., and Maecker-Kolhoff, B. (2013). Impaired Functionality of Antiviral T Cells in G-CSF Mobilized Stem Cell Donors: Implications for the Selection of CTL Donor. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0077925"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1064","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cis625","article-title":"Rapid Salvage Treatment With Virus-Specific T Cells for Therapy-Resistant Disease","volume":"55","author":"Uhlin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5113","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2013-02-486324","article-title":"Multicenter study of banked third-party virus-specific T cells to treat severe viral infections after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation","volume":"121","author":"Leen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1097\/CJI.0000000000000031","article-title":"T-cell Therapy Using a Bank of EBV-specific Cytotoxic T Cells: Lessons from a phase I\/II feasibility and safety study","volume":"37","author":"Gallot","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2193","DOI":"10.1182\/bloodadvances.2017010223","article-title":"Long-term control of recurrent or refractory viral infections after allogeneic HSCT with third-party virus-specific T cells","volume":"1","author":"Withers","year":"2017","journal-title":"Blood Adv."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4700","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2010-06-289991","article-title":"Allogeneic virus-specific T cells with HLA alloreactivity do not produce GVHD in human subjects","volume":"116","author":"Melenhorst","year":"2010","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2644","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2011-08-371971","article-title":"Adoptive immunotherapy with unselected or EBV-specific T cells for biopsy-proven EBV+ lymphomas after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation","volume":"119","author":"Doubrovina","year":"2012","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2011.39.8495","article-title":"Adoptive Transfer of Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) Nuclear Antigen 1\u2013Specific T Cells As Treatment for EBV Reactivation and Lymphoproliferative Disorders After Allogeneic Stem-Cell Transplantation","volume":"31","author":"Icheva","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1163","DOI":"10.1038\/bmt.2016.17","article-title":"Virus-specific T-cell banks for \u2018off the shelf\u2019 adoptive therapy of refractory infections","volume":"51","author":"Prockop","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bone Marrow Transplant."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2571","DOI":"10.1182\/bloodadvances.2019000371","article-title":"\u201cMini\u201d bank of only 8 donors supplies CMV-directed T cells to diverse recipients","volume":"3","author":"Tzannou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Blood Adv."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S27","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofab466.037","article-title":"37. Allogeneic, Off-the-Shelf, SARS-CoV-2-specific T Cells Demonstrate Reactivity Against Emerging Variant Strains","volume":"8","author":"Vasileiou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2598-9","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2-reactive T cells in healthy donors and patients with COVID-19","volume":"587","author":"Braun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2905","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.2020008488","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2\u2013specific T cells are rapidly expanded for therapeutic use and target conserved regions of the membrane protein","volume":"136","author":"Keller","year":"2020","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abd3871","article-title":"Selective and cross-reactive SARS-CoV-2 T cell epitopes in unexposed humans","volume":"370","author":"Mateus","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"abm0829","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abm0829","article-title":"mRNA vaccines induce durable immune memory to SARS-CoV-2 and variants of concern","volume":"374","author":"Goel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xcrm.2021.100355","article-title":"Impact of SARS-CoV-2 variants on the total CD4+ and CD8+ T cell reactivity in infected or vaccinated individuals","volume":"2","author":"Tarke","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Rep. Med."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2021.08.001","article-title":"Rapid induction of antigen-specific CD4+ T cells is associated with coordinated humoral and cellular immunity to SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination","volume":"54","author":"Painter","year":"2021","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcyt.2021.07.006","article-title":"Spike-directed vaccination elicits robust spike-specific T-cell response, including to mutant strains","volume":"24","author":"Stanojevic","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cytotherapy"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801431","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.801431","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Spike-Specific CD4+ T Cell Response Is Conserved Against Variants of Concern, Including Omicron","volume":"13","author":"Mazzoni","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1452","DOI":"10.1002\/iid3.496","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein-reactive T cells can be readily expanded from COVID-19 vaccinated donors","volume":"9","author":"Taborska","year":"2021","journal-title":"Immun. Inflamm. Dis."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2021.05.010","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 human T cell epitopes: Adaptive immune response against COVID-19","volume":"29","author":"Grifoni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xcrm.2021.100204","article-title":"Comprehensive analysis of T cell immunodominance and immunoprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 epitopes in COVID-19 cases","volume":"2","author":"Tarke","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Rep. Med."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-021-01122-w","article-title":"The T cell immune response against SARS-CoV-2","volume":"23","author":"Moss","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100312","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xcrm.2021.100312","article-title":"Landscape of epitopes targeted by T cells in 852 individuals recovered from COVID-19: Meta-analysis, immunoprevalence, and web platform","volume":"2","author":"Quadeer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Rep. Med."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cels.2021.09.013","article-title":"The mutational landscape of SARS-CoV-2 variants diversifies T cell targets in an HLA-supertype-dependent manner","volume":"13","author":"Hamelin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Syst."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5061","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-25167-5","article-title":"Two doses of SARS-CoV-2 vaccination induce robust immune responses to emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern","volume":"12","author":"Skelly","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)00090-3","article-title":"Breakthrough infections with SARS-CoV-2 omicron despite mRNA vaccine booster dose","volume":"399","author":"Kuhlmann","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabo2202","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.abo2202","article-title":"Divergent SARS-CoV-2 Omicron\u2013reactive T and B cell responses in COVID-19 vaccine recipients","volume":"7","author":"GeurtsvanKessel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109708","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2021.109708","article-title":"Profiling CD8+ T cell epitopes of COVID-19 convalescents reveals reduced cellular immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 variants","volume":"36","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2021.103353","article-title":"The impact of viral mutations on recognition by SARS-CoV-2 specific T cells","volume":"24","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"The WHO Rapid Evidence Appraisal for COVID-19 Therapies (REACT) Working Group, Sterne, J.A.C., Murthy, S., Diaz, J.V., Slutsky, A.S., Villar, J., Angus, D.C., Annane, D., Azevedo, L.C.P., and Berwanger, O. (2020). Association Between Administration of Systemic Corticosteroids and Mortality Among Critically Ill Patients With COVID-19: A Meta-analysis. JAMA, 324, 1330\u20131341.","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.17023"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2021.108121","article-title":"Effectiveness of corticosteroids to treat severe COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies","volume":"100","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_184","first-page":"509","article-title":"Kinetic-dynamic modeling of lymphocytopenia induced by the combined action of dexamethasone and hydrocortisone in humans, after inhalation and intravenous administration of dexamethasone","volume":"262","author":"Braat","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2008.10.097","article-title":"Glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis requires FOXO3A activity","volume":"377","author":"Ma","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2013.07.020","article-title":"Natural killer cell deficiency","volume":"132","author":"Orange","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2102715","article-title":"Treatment of Relapsing HPV Diseases by Restored Function of Natural Killer Cells","volume":"385","author":"Lisco","year":"2021","journal-title":"New Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1070","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-0944-y","article-title":"A single-cell atlas of the peripheral immune response in patients with severe COVID-19","volume":"26","author":"Wilk","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1762","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa150","article-title":"Characteristics of Peripheral Lymphocyte Subset Alteration in COVID-19 Pneumonia","volume":"221","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108516","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2020.108516","article-title":"COVID-19 pneumonia: CD8+ T and NK cells are decreased in number but compensatory increased in cytotoxic potential","volume":"218","author":"Jiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5035","DOI":"10.1182\/bloodadvances.2020002650","article-title":"Impaired natural killer cell counts and cytolytic activity in patients with severe COVID-19","volume":"4","author":"Osman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Blood Adv."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-4690-10-127","article-title":"Distinct roles of NK cells in viral immunity during different phases of acute Friend retrovirus infection","volume":"10","author":"Littwitz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Retrovirology"},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586765","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.586765","article-title":"Can Natural Killer Cells Be a Principal Player in Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Immunity?","volume":"11","author":"Ahmed","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Eeden, C., Khan, L., Osman, M.S., and Tervaert, J.W.C. (2020). Natural Killer Cell Dysfunction and its Role in COVID-19. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21176351"},{"key":"ref_195","first-page":"112","article-title":"Natural killer cells in antiviral immunity","volume":"22","author":"Strunz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108655","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2022.108655","article-title":"COVID-19 immunotherapy: Treatment based on the immune cell-mediated approaches","volume":"107","author":"Zavvar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652223","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.652223","article-title":"CAR-NK Cells Effectively Target SARS-CoV-2-Spike-Expressing Cell Lines In Vitro","volume":"12","author":"Ma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2898","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI36498","article-title":"CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ Tregs resolve experimental lung injury in mice and are present in humans with acute lung injury","volume":"119","author":"Tsushima","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2382","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1000423","article-title":"Foxp3+ CD4 Regulatory T Cells Limit Pulmonary Immunopathology by Modulating the CD8 T Cell Response during Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection","volume":"185","author":"Fulton","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1078","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2015.08.021","article-title":"A Distinct Function of Regulatory T Cells in Tissue Protection","volume":"162","author":"Arpaia","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(14)70291-7","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem (stromal) cells for treatment of ARDS: A phase 1 clinical trial","volume":"3","author":"Wilson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-016-0320-5","article-title":"The hepatocyte growth factor-expressing character is required for mesenchymal stem cells to protect the lung injured by lipopolysaccharide in vivo","volume":"7","author":"Hu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(18)30418-1","article-title":"Treatment with allogeneic mesenchymal stromal cells for moderate to severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (START study): A randomised phase 2a safety trial","volume":"7","author":"Matthay","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.14336\/AD.2020.0228","article-title":"Transplantation of ACE2- Mesenchymal Stem Cells Improves the Outcome of Patients with COVID-19 Pneumonia","volume":"11","author":"Leng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aging Dis."},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1002\/sctm.20-0385","article-title":"Human mesenchymal stromal cells do not express ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and are not permissive to SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"10","author":"Avanzini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Stem Cells Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-021-02813-6","article-title":"Dodging COVID-19 infection: Low expression and localization of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 in multiple donor-derived lines of human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells","volume":"19","author":"Hernandez","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vasanthan, J., Gurusamy, N., Rajasingh, S., Sigamani, V., Kirankumar, S., Thomas, E.L., and Rajasingh, J. (2020). Role of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Regenerative Therapy. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10010054"},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1477","DOI":"10.1089\/scd.2016.0184","article-title":"Effect of Mesenchymal Stromal Cells on T Cells in a Septic Context: Immunosuppression or Immunostimulation?","volume":"26","author":"Thepenier","year":"2017","journal-title":"Stem Cells Dev."},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1038\/s41581-018-0023-5","article-title":"Immunoregulatory mechanisms of mesenchymal stem and stromal cells in inflammatory diseases","volume":"14","author":"Shi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16569","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-34983-7","article-title":"Immune cells inhibit the tumor metastasis in the 4D cellular lung model by reducing the number of live circulating tumor cells","volume":"8","author":"Mishra","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166014","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2020.166014","article-title":"Fostering mesenchymal stem cell therapy to halt cytokine storm in COVID-19","volume":"1867","author":"Jeyaraman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA)\u2014Mol. Basis Dis."},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726909","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.726909","article-title":"Regulation of Inflammatory Cytokine Storms by Mesenchymal Stem Cells","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.teb.2011.0488","article-title":"Therapeutic Applications of Mesenchymal Stromal Cells: Paracrine Effects and Potential Improvements","volume":"18","author":"Doorn","year":"2012","journal-title":"Tissue Eng. Part B Rev."},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stem.2013.09.006","article-title":"Mesenchymal Stromal Cells: Sensors and Switchers of Inflammation","volume":"13","author":"Bernardo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Stem Cell"},{"key":"ref_215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2831","DOI":"10.3892\/mmr.2014.3092","article-title":"Paracrine factors from mesenchymal stem cells attenuate epithelial injury and lung fibrosis","volume":"11","author":"Shen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_216","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1007\/s11373-004-8183-7","article-title":"T cell responses to allogeneic human mesenchymal stem cells: Immunogenicity, tolerance, and suppression","volume":"12","author":"Klyushnenkova","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Sci."},{"key":"ref_217","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-019-1279-9","article-title":"HLA-DR expression in clinical-grade bone marrow-derived multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells: A two-site study","volume":"10","author":"Laitinen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_218","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2019.04.011","article-title":"The Plasticity of Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Regulating Surface HLA-I","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_219","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-020-01875-5","article-title":"Treatment of severe COVID-19 with human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells","volume":"11","author":"Shu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_220","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-020-03142-8","article-title":"Administration of umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells in patients with severe COVID-19 pneumonia","volume":"24","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_221","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2020.05.020","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cell therapy in severe COVID-19: A retrospective study of short-term treatment efficacy and side effects","volume":"81","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_222","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-020-00286-5","article-title":"Human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cell therapy in patients with COVID-19: A phase 1 clinical trial","volume":"5","author":"Meng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_223","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1002\/sctm.20-0472","article-title":"Umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells for COVID-19 acute respiratory distress syndrome: A double-blind, phase 1\/2a, randomized controlled trial","volume":"10","author":"Lanzoni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stem Cells Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_224","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1002\/sctm.21-0046","article-title":"Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stromal Cells as Critical COVID-19 Adjuvant Therapy: A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"10","author":"Dilogo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stem Cells Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_225","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-021-00488-5","article-title":"Effect of human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells on lung damage in severe COVID-19 patients: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2 trial","volume":"6","author":"Shi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_226","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2020.00645","article-title":"The Coronavirus Pandemic (SARS-CoV-2): New Problems Demand New Solutions, the Alternative of Mesenchymal (Stem) Stromal Cells","volume":"8","author":"Eiro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_227","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1089\/scd.2020.0080","article-title":"Exosomes Derived from Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells as Treatment for Severe COVID-19","volume":"29","author":"Sengupta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Stem Cells Dev."},{"key":"ref_228","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2019.01.020","article-title":"Human FOXP3+ Regulatory T Cell Heterogeneity and Function in Autoimmunity and Cancer","volume":"50","author":"Wing","year":"2019","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_229","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00043","article-title":"Past, Present, and Future of Regulatory T Cell Therapy in Transplantation and Autoimmunity","volume":"10","author":"Romano","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_230","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2019.12.007","article-title":"Regulatory T Cells Restrain Interleukin-2- and Blimp- 1-Dependent Acquisition of Cytotoxic Function by Article Regulatory T Cells Restrain Interleukin-2- and Blimp-1-Dependent Acquisition of Cytotoxic Function by CD4 + T Cells","volume":"52","author":"Sledzinska","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_231","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa248","article-title":"Dysregulation of Immune Response in Patients With Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) in Wuhan, China","volume":"71","author":"Qin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_232","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2620","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI137244","article-title":"Clinical and immunological features of severe and moderate coronavirus disease 2019","volume":"130","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_233","first-page":"e137799","article-title":"The laboratory tests and host immunity of COVID-19 patients with different severity of illness","volume":"5","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_234","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-020-0447-2","article-title":"High-dimensional immune profiling by mass cytometry revealed immunosuppression and dysfunction of immunity in COVID-19 patients","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_235","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4167","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.26891","article-title":"Toward an understanding of regulatory T cells in COVID-19: A systematic review","volume":"93","author":"Rahimzadeh","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_236","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2008.12.014","article-title":"Role of regulatory T cells in coronavirus-induced acute encephalitis","volume":"385","author":"Anghelina","year":"2009","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_237","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"852","DOI":"10.7326\/L20-0681","article-title":"Regulatory T Cells for Treating Patients With COVID-19 and Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome: Two Case Reports","volume":"173","author":"Gladstone","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/23\/23\/15122\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:32:16Z","timestamp":1760146336000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/23\/23\/15122"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,1]]},"references-count":237,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms232315122"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms232315122","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1422-0067"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,1]]}}}