{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T23:57:45Z","timestamp":1785369465092,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":159,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,6]],"date-time":"2022-12-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1670284800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"University of Sharjah","award":["2201110155"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2201110155"]}]},{"name":"University of Sharjah","award":["2101110147"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2101110147"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has captivated the globe\u2019s attention since its emergence in 2019. This highly infectious, spreadable, and dangerous pathogen has caused health, social, and economic crises. Therefore, a worldwide collaborative effort was made to find an efficient strategy to overcome and develop vaccines. The new vaccines provide an effective immune response that safeguards the community from the virus\u2019 severity. WHO has approved nine vaccines for emergency use based on safety and efficacy data collected from various conducted clinical trials. Herein, we review the safety and effectiveness of the WHO-approved COVID-19 vaccines and associated immune responses, and their impact on improving the public\u2019s health. Several immunological studies have demonstrated that vaccination dramatically enhances the immune response and reduces the likelihood of future infections in previously infected individuals. However, the type of vaccination and individual health status can significantly affect immune responses. Exposure of healthy individuals to adenovirus vectors or mRNA vaccines causes the early production of antibodies from B and T cells. On the other hand, unhealthy individuals were more likely to experience harmful events due to relapses in their existing conditions. Taken together, aligning with the proper vaccination to a patient\u2019s case can result in better outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232315415","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,7]],"date-time":"2022-12-07T01:47:46Z","timestamp":1670377666000},"page":"15415","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":29,"title":["COVID-19 Vaccines, Effectiveness, and Immune Responses"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Haneen Imad","family":"Abufares","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates"},{"name":"Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Leen","family":"Oyoun Alsoud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates"},{"name":"Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7210-7964","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad A. Y.","family":"Alqudah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohd","family":"Shara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nelson C.","family":"Soares","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates"},{"name":"Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karem H.","family":"Alzoubi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates"},{"name":"Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1580-2589","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Waseem","family":"El-Huneidi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates"},{"name":"College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1315-0609","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yasser","family":"Bustanji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates"},{"name":"College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7691-615X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sameh S. M.","family":"Soliman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates"},{"name":"Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0169-7538","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad H.","family":"Semreen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates"},{"name":"Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ftaa006","DOI":"10.1093\/femspd\/ftaa006","article-title":"Coronaviruses: A Paradigm of New Emerging Zoonotic Diseases","volume":"77","author":"Salata","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pathog. Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2231","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.2231","article-title":"Neutralising Antibody Escape of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein: Risk Assessment for Antibody-Based COVID-19 Therapeutics and Vaccines","volume":"31","author":"Focosi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rev. Med. 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