{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]],"date-time":"2026-03-16T13:05:27Z","timestamp":1773666327966,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":146,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,7]],"date-time":"2023-01-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1673049600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The severity of COVID-19 commonly depends on age-related tissue stiffness. The aim was to review publications that explain the effect of microenvironmental extracellular matrix stiffness on cellular processes. Platelets and endothelial cells are mechanosensitive. Increased tissue stiffness can trigger cytokine storm with the upregulated expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin IL-6, and tissue integrity disruption, leading to enhanced virus entry and disease severity. Increased tissue stiffness in critically ill COVID-19 patients triggers platelet activation and initiates plague formation and thrombosis development. Cholesterol content in cell membrane increases with aging and further enhances tissue stiffness. Membrane cholesterol depletion decreases virus entry to host cells. Membrane cholesterol lowering drugs, such as statins or novel chitosan derivatives, have to be further developed for application in COVID-19 treatment. Statins are also known to decrease arterial stiffness mitigating cardiovascular diseases. Sulfated chitosan derivatives can be further developed for potential use in future as anticoagulants in prevention of severe COVID-19. Anti-TNF-\u03b1 therapies as well as destiffening therapies have been suggested to combat severe COVID-19. The inhibition of the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells pathway must be considered as a therapeutic target in the treatment of severe COVID-19 patients. The activation of mechanosensitive platelets by higher matrix stiffness increases their adhesion and the risk of thrombus formation, thus enhancing the severity of COVID-19.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24021187","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,9]],"date-time":"2023-01-09T02:09:39Z","timestamp":1673230179000},"page":"1187","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Severe COVID-19\u2014A Review of Suggested Mechanisms Based on the Role of Extracellular Matrix Stiffness"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Garry","family":"Kerch","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Materials Science and Applied Chemistry, Riga Technical University, 1048 Riga, Latvia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1513","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)02796-3","article-title":"Estimating excess mortality due to the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic analysis of COVID-19-related mortality, 2020\u20132021","volume":"399","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa349","article-title":"Elevated Expression of Serum Endothelial Cell Adhesion Molecules in COVID-19 Patients","volume":"222","author":"Tong","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. 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