{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T23:09:01Z","timestamp":1790291341227,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":108,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,19]],"date-time":"2023-01-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1674086400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004281","name":"Polish National Science Centre","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2016\/22\/E\/NZ5\/00383"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2016\/22\/E\/NZ5\/00383"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004281","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004281","name":"Polish National Science Centre","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2020\/37\/N\/NZ5\/00835"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020\/37\/N\/NZ5\/00835"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004281","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Due to their structural conservation and functional role in critical signalling pathways, non-coding RNA (ncRNA) is a promising biomarker and modulator of pathological conditions. Most research has focussed on the role of microRNAs (miRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and circular RNAs (circRNAs). These molecules have been investigated both in a cellular and an extracellular context. Sources of ncRNAs may include organ-specific body fluids. Therefore, studies on ncRNAs in respiratory diseases include those on sputum, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and exhaled breath condensate (EBC). It is worth identifying the limitations of these biosamples in terms of ncRNA abundance, processing and diagnostic potential. This review describes the progress in the literature on the role of ncRNAs in the pathogenesis and progression of severe respiratory diseases, including cystic fibrosis, asthma and interstitial lung disease. We showed that there is a deficit of information on lncRNAs and circRNAs in selected diseases, despite attempts to functionally bind them to miRNAs. miRNAs remain the most well-studied, but only a few investigations have been conducted on the least invasive biosample material, i.e., EBC. To summarise the studies conducted to date, we also performed a preliminary in silico analysis of the reported miRNAs, demonstrating the complexity of their role and interactions in selected respiratory diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24032006","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,19]],"date-time":"2023-01-19T07:42:27Z","timestamp":1674114147000},"page":"2006","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Non-Coding RNAs in Pulmonary Diseases: Comparison of Different Airway-Derived Biosamples"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4219-9620","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zuzanna","family":"Stachowiak","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular and Cell Biology Unit, Department of Paediatric Pulmonology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-572 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Beata","family":"Naro\u017cna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular and Cell Biology Unit, Department of Paediatric Pulmonology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-572 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3379-9106","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aleksandra","family":"Szczepankiewicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular and Cell Biology Unit, Department of Paediatric Pulmonology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-572 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1515\/jib-2019-0027","article-title":"Non-Coding RNAs and their Integrated Networks","volume":"16","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Integr. Bioinform."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.082701.108","article-title":"Most mammalian mRNAs are conserved targets of microRNAs","volume":"19","author":"Friedman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D155","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gky1141","article-title":"miRBase: From microRNA sequences to function","volume":"47","author":"Kozomara","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1002\/path.5405","article-title":"Long non-coding RNAs in development and disease: Conservation to mechanisms","volume":"250","author":"Tsagakis","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1038\/s41580-020-00315-9","article-title":"Gene regulation by long non-coding RNAs and its biological functions","volume":"22","author":"Statello","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, X., Cai, Y., and Xu, J. (2019). Circular RNAs: Biogenesis, Mechanism, and Function in Human Cancers. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20163926"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcf.2015.03.003","article-title":"Inflammation in cystic fibrosis lung disease: Pathogenesis and therapy","volume":"14","author":"Cantin","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Cyst. Fibros."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1183\/09059180.00006512","article-title":"Treatment of pulmonary exacerbations in cystic fibrosis","volume":"22","author":"Bhatt","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Hashmi, M.F., Tariq, M., and Cataletto, M.E. (2022, August 18). Asthma, StatPearls [Internet], Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK430901\/."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Antoine, M., and Mlika, M. (2022, August 01). Interstitial Lung Disease, StatPearls [Internet], Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK541084\/."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barratt, S., Creamer, A., Hayton, C., and Chaudhuri, N. (2018). Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (IPF): An Overview. J. Clin. Med., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm7080201"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.05.00029705","article-title":"Exhaled breath condensate: Methodological recommendations and unresolved questions","volume":"26","author":"Horvath","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iac.2007.09.001","article-title":"Exhaled Breath Condensate: An Overview","volume":"27","author":"Hunt","year":"2007","journal-title":"Immunol. Allergy Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"17","article-title":"Exhaled Breath Condensates as a Source for Biomarkers for Characterization of Inflammatory Lung Diseases","volume":"3","author":"Bajaj","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Anal. Sci. Methods Instrum."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P\u00e9rez-S\u00e1nchez, C., Barbarroja, N., Pantale\u00e3o, L., L\u00f3pez-S\u00e1nchez, L., Ozanne, S., Jurado-G\u00e1mez, B., Aranda, E., Lopez-Pedrera, C., and Rodr\u00edguez-Ariza, A. (2021). Clinical Utility of microRNAs in Exhaled Breath Condensate as Biomarkers for Lung Cancer. J. Pers. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm11020111"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17381","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-73243-5","article-title":"Isolation, characterisation and detection of breath-derived extracellular vesicles","volume":"10","author":"Dobhal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"doaa082","DOI":"10.1093\/dote\/doaa082","article-title":"MicroRNA Levels in Exhaled Breath Condensate of Patients with Esophageal Atresia","volume":"34","author":"Soyer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dis. Esophagus"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2019.04.012","article-title":"The role of microRNAs in chronic pseudomonas lung infection in Cystic fibrosis","volume":"151","author":"Fesen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stachowiak, Z., Wojsyk-Banaszak, I., Jo\u0144czyk-Potoczna, K., Naro\u017cna, B., Langwi\u0144ski, W., Kycler, Z., Sobkowiak, P., Br\u0119borowicz, A., and Szczepankiewicz, A. (2020). MiRNA Expression Profile in the Airways Is Altered during Pulmonary Exacerbation in Children with Cystic Fibrosis\u2014A Preliminary Report. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9061887"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zeng, X., Huang, C., Senavirathna, L., Wang, P., and Liu, L. (2017). miR-27b inhibits fibroblast activation via targeting TGF\u03b2 signaling pathway. BMC Cell Biol., 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12860-016-0123-7"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2013.03.006","article-title":"Differential expression of microRNAs in exhaled breath condensates of patients with asthma, patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and healthy adults","volume":"132","author":"Pinkerton","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mendes, F.C., Paci\u00eancia, I., Ferreira, A.C., Martins, C., Rufo, J.C., Silva, D., Cunha, P., Farraia, M., Moreira, P., and Delgado, L. (2019). Development and validation of exhaled breath condensate microRNAs to identify and endotype asthma in children. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0224983"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"68","article-title":"MicroRNA-570-3p regulates HuR and cytokine expression in airway epithelial cells","volume":"3","author":"Roff","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mendes, F.C., Paci\u00eancia, I., Rufo, J.C., Silva, D., Delgado, L., Moreira, A., and Moreira, P. (2022). Dietary Acid Load Modulation of Asthma-Related miRNAs in the Exhaled Breath Condensate of Children. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14061147"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"93","article-title":"Biomarkers in sarcoidosis: A review","volume":"4","author":"Ahmadzai","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Med. Insights Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resinv.2020.02.008","article-title":"MicroRNAs in pulmonary sarcoidosis: A systematic review","volume":"58","author":"Pattnaik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Respir. Investig."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Walker, H.K., Hall, W.D., and Hurst, J.W. (1990). Cough and Sputum Production. Clinical Methods: The History, Physical, and Laboratory Examinations, Butterworths. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00296-20","DOI":"10.1128\/mSystems.00296-20","article-title":"Parallel Analysis of Cystic Fibrosis Sputum and Saliva Reveals Overlapping Communities and an Opportunity for Sample Decontamination","volume":"5","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Msystems"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Shen, F., and Sergi, C. (2022, February 28). Sputum Analysis, StatPearls [Internet], Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK563195\/."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Jain, V., Vashisht, R., Yilmaz, G., and Bhardwaj, A. (2022, August 01). Pneumonia Pathology, StatPearls [Internet], Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK526116\/."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.5588\/ijtld.14.0798","article-title":"The impact of sputum quality on tuberculosis diagnosis: A systematic review","volume":"19","author":"Ho","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(18)30171-1","article-title":"The CF-Sputum Induction Trial (CF-SpIT) to assess lower airway bacterial sampling in young children with cystic fibrosis: A prospective internally controlled interventional trial","volume":"6","author":"Ronchetti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S140","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cir1069","article-title":"Procedures for Collection of Induced Sputum Specimens from Children","volume":"54","author":"Grant","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1007\/s12016-016-8589-9","article-title":"Diagnostic Potential of Extracellular MicroRNA in Respiratory Diseases","volume":"54","author":"Pattarayan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Rev. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.00826","article-title":"Novel Modulators of Asthma and Allergy: Exosomes and MicroRNAs","volume":"8","author":"Sastre","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcf.2017.11.005","article-title":"The expression of Mirc1\/Mir17\u201392 cluster in sputum samples correlates with pulmonary exacerbations in cystic fibrosis patients","volume":"17","author":"Krause","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Cyst. Fibros."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2026","DOI":"10.1080\/15548627.2016.1217370","article-title":"Elevated Mirc1\/Mir17-92 cluster expression negatively regulates autophagy and CFTR (cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator) function in CF macrophages","volume":"12","author":"Tazi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Autophagy"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcf.2019.12.012","article-title":"New approaches to genetic therapies for cystic fibrosis","volume":"19","author":"Boyd","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Cyst. Fibros."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2017-210670","article-title":"Effective silencing of ENaC by siRNA delivered with epithelial-targeted nanocomplexes in human cystic fibrosis cells and in mouse lung","volume":"73","author":"Tagalakis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcf.2017.09.003","article-title":"Progress in understanding mucus abnormalities in cystic fibrosis airways","volume":"17","author":"Wine","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Cyst. Fibros."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7565","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.1c14975","article-title":"Hybrid Lipid\/Polymer Nanoparticles to Tackle the Cystic Fibrosis Mucus Barrier in siRNA Delivery to the Lungs: Does PEGylation Make the Difference?","volume":"14","author":"Conte","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3659","DOI":"10.1111\/all.15089","article-title":"Advances and highlights in biomarkers of allergic diseases","volume":"76","author":"Ogulur","year":"2021","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1097\/MCP.0000000000000345","article-title":"Role of sputum biomarkers in the management of asthma","volume":"23","author":"Seys","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1185","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.161.4.9812061","article-title":"Increased Neutrophil Numbers and IL-8 Levels in Airway Secretions in Acute Severe Asthma: Clinical and biologic significance","volume":"161","author":"Shaughnessy","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2016.02.018","article-title":"Asthma inflammatory phenotypes show differential microRNA expression in sputum","volume":"137","author":"Maes","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201912-2360OC","article-title":"A Network of Sputum MicroRNAs Is Associated with Neutrophilic Airway Inflammation in Asthma","volume":"202","author":"Gomez","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, Y., Zhang, S., Fang, X., Qin, L., Fan, Y., Ding, D., Liu, X., and Xie, M. (2018). Plasma miR-199a-5p is increased in neutrophilic phenotype asthma patients and negatively correlated with pulmonary function. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0193502"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2014.11.044","article-title":"MicroRNA-9 regulates steroid-resistant airway hyperresponsiveness by reducing protein phosphatase 2A activity","volume":"136","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L253","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00567.2017","article-title":"Decreased epithelial and sputum miR-221-3p associates with airway eosinophilic inflammation and CXCL17 expression in asthma","volume":"315","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Cell. Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1811","DOI":"10.2147\/COPD.S130616","article-title":"Expression profiling of miRNA-145 and miRNA-338 in serum and sputum of patients with COPD, asthma, and asthma\u2013COPD overlap syndrome phenotype","volume":"12","author":"Lacedonia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Chronic Obstr. Pulm. Dis."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1111\/sji.12535","article-title":"Altered miR-155 Expression in Allergic Asthmatic Airways","volume":"85","author":"Johansson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Scand. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1111\/cea.14013","article-title":"Sputum microRNA-screening reveals Prostaglandin EP3 receptor as selective target in allergen-specific immunotherapy","volume":"51","author":"Jakwerth","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7499911","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/7499911","article-title":"lncRNA-NEAT1 Sponges miR-128 to Promote Inflammatory Reaction and Phenotypic Transformation of Airway Smooth Muscle Cells","volume":"2022","author":"Song","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Math. Methods Med."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e23023","DOI":"10.1002\/jcla.23023","article-title":"Long non-coding RNA NEAT1 overexpression associates with increased exacerbation risk, severity, and inflammation, as well as decreased lung function through the interaction with microRNA-124 in asthma","volume":"34","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lab. Anal."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1159\/000083398","article-title":"Induced Sputum versus Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid in the Evaluation of Patients with Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis","volume":"72","author":"Antoniou","year":"2005","journal-title":"Respiration"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2018-211897","article-title":"Sputum exosomes: Promising biomarkers for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"74","author":"Njock","year":"2018","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2019-214077","article-title":"Macrophage-derived exosomes attenuate fibrosis in airway epithelial cells through delivery of antifibrotic miR-142-3p","volume":"75","author":"Guiot","year":"2020","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"52","article-title":"Bronchoalveolar lavage","volume":"1","author":"Connett","year":"2000","journal-title":"Paediatr. Respir. Rev."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Patel, P.H., Antoine, M., and Ullah, S. (2022, August 28). Bronchoalveolar Lavage, StatPearls [Internet], Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK430762\/."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.30553","article-title":"The role of exosomes from BALF in lung disease","volume":"237","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Cell. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1158\/1940-6207.CAPR-17-0098","article-title":"Alterations in Bronchial Airway miRNA Expression for Lung Cancer Detection","volume":"10","author":"Pavel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cancer Prev. Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703307","DOI":"10.3389\/fmolb.2021.703307","article-title":"A Potential circRNA-miRNA-mRNA Regulatory Network in Asthmatic Airway Epithelial Cells Identified by Integrated Analysis of Microarray Datasets","volume":"8","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Mol. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guthrie, J. (2012). General Considerations when Dealing with Biological Fluid Samples. Comprehensive Sampling and Sample Preparation, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-381373-2.00065-X"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201704-0732OC","article-title":"MicroRNA-145 Antagonism Reverses TGF-\u03b2 Inhibition of F508del CFTR Correction in Airway Epithelia","volume":"197","author":"Kabir","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, H., Harris, W.T., Kortyka, S., Kotha, K., Ostmann, A.J., Rezayat, A., Sridharan, A., Sanders, Y., Naren, A.P., and Clancy, J.P. (2014). TGF-Beta Downregulation of Distinct Chloride Channels in Cystic Fibrosis-Affected Epithelia. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0106842"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1186\/s13148-017-0355-1","article-title":"Pulmonary microRNA profiling: Implications in upper lobe predominant lung disease","volume":"9","author":"Armstrong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Epigenetics"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1350","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00163414","article-title":"miR-17 overexpression in cystic fibrosis airway epithelial cells decreases interleukin-8 production","volume":"46","author":"Oglesby","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"053","DOI":"10.3934\/genet.2018.1.53","article-title":"Identification of a novel functional miR-143-5p recognition element in the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator 3\u2019UTR","volume":"05","author":"Gadi","year":"2018","journal-title":"AIMS Genet."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201311-1986OC","article-title":"miR-31 Dysregulation in Cystic Fibrosis Airways Contributes to Increased Pulmonary Cathepsin S Production","volume":"190","author":"Weldon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1702","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.0902669","article-title":"miR-126 Is Downregulated in Cystic Fibrosis Airway Epithelial Cells and Regulates TOM1 Expression","volume":"184","author":"Oglesby","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11604","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M110.198390","article-title":"Elevated miR-155 Promotes Inflammation in Cystic Fibrosis by Driving Hyperexpression of Interleukin-8","volume":"286","author":"Bhattacharyya","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3354","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1202960","article-title":"Regulation of Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator by MicroRNA-145, -223, and -494 Is Altered in \u0394F508 Cystic Fibrosis Airway Epithelium","volume":"190","author":"Oglesby","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40348-014-0012-0","article-title":"miRNA-221 is elevated in cystic fibrosis airway epithelial cells and regulates expression of ATF6","volume":"2","author":"Oglesby","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymthe.2020.02.001","article-title":"Precise Targeting of miRNA Sites Restores CFTR Activity in CF Bronchial Epithelial Cells","volume":"28","author":"Gaul","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocel.2014.02.022","article-title":"Long noncoding RNA are aberrantly expressed in vivo in the cystic fibrosis bronchial epithelium","volume":"52","author":"McKiernan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2012.11.039","article-title":"Altered microRNA profiles in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid exosomes in asthmatic patients","volume":"131","author":"Bhakta","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1808","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymthe.2018.04.016","article-title":"Posttranscriptional Regulation of Interleukin-33 Expression by MicroRNA-200 in Bronchial Asthma","volume":"26","author":"Tang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, H.-H., Li, C.-X., and Tang, L.-F. (2019). The Differential Expression Profiles of miRNA-let 7a, 7b, and 7c in Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid from Infants with Asthma and Airway Foreign Bodies. J. Evid. Based Integr. Med., 24.","DOI":"10.1177\/2515690X18821906"},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"5432","article-title":"Effects of mir-26a\/mir-146a\/miR-31 on airway inflammation of asthma mice and asthma children","volume":"23","author":"Shi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Francisco-Garcia, A.S., Garrido-Mart\u00edn, E.M., Rupani, H., Lau, L.C.K., Martinez-Nunez, R.T., Howarth, P.H., and Sanchez-Elsner, T. (2019). Small RNA Species and microRNA Profiles are Altered in Severe Asthma Nanovesicles from Broncho Alveolar Lavage and Associate with Impaired Lung Function and Inflammation. Non-Coding RNA, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/ncrna5040051"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201502-0280OC","article-title":"Toll-like Receptor 7 Is Reduced in Severe Asthma and Linked to an Altered MicroRNA Profile","volume":"194","author":"Rupani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1165\/rcmb.2011-0160OC","article-title":"Distinct MicroRNA Expression in Human Airway Cells of Asthmatic Donors Identifies a Novel Asthma-Associated Gene","volume":"47","author":"Jardim","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201201-0027OC","article-title":"Airway Epithelial miRNA Expression Is Altered in Asthma","volume":"186","author":"Solberg","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1281","DOI":"10.1111\/cea.12754","article-title":"Decreased epithelial and plasma miR-181b-5p expression associates with airway eosinophilic inflammation in asthma","volume":"46","author":"Huo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1111\/cea.13498","article-title":"microRNA-218-5p plays a protective role in eosinophilic airway inflammation via targeting \u03b4-catenin, a novel catenin in asthma","volume":"50","author":"Liang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-022-01933-x","article-title":"Epithelial microRNA-30a-3p targets RUNX2\/HMGB1 axis to suppress airway eosinophilic inflammation in asthma","volume":"23","author":"Wu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1186\/s13601-019-0301-8","article-title":"Reduced expression of miR-146a in human bronchial epithelial cells alters neutrophil migration","volume":"9","author":"Kivihall","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1080\/01902148.2018.1533051","article-title":"miR-221 participates in the airway epithelial cells injury in asthma via targeting SIRT1","volume":"44","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp. Lung Res."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1496","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2013.01.037","article-title":"Maternal asthma and microRNA regulation of soluble HLA-G in the airway","volume":"131","author":"Laxman","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, K., Feng, Y., Liang, Y., Wu, W., Chang, C., Chen, D., Chen, S., Gao, J., Chen, G., and Yi, L. (2021). Epithelial microRNA-206 targets CD39\/extracellular ATP to upregulate airway IL-25 and TSLP in type 2-high asthma. JCI Insight., 6.","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.148103"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2021.10.041","article-title":"CircZNF652 promotes the goblet cell metaplasia by targeting the miR-452-5p\/JAK2 signaling pathway in allergic airway epithelia","volume":"150","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_92","first-page":"2617","article-title":"Integrative analysis of the contribution of mRNAs and long non-coding RNAs to the pathogenesis of asthma","volume":"20","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121378","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/121378","article-title":"Correlation Network Analysis Reveals Relationships between MicroRNAs, Transcription FactorT-bet, and Deregulated Cytokine\/Chemokine-Receptor Network in Pulmonary Sarcoidosis","volume":"2015","author":"Dyskova","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kisza\u0142kiewicz, J., Piotrowski, W.J., Pastuszak-Lewandoska, D., G\u00f3rski, P., Antczak, A., G\u00f3rski, W., Doma\u0144ska-Senderowska, D., Migdalska-S\u0119k, M., Czarnecka, K.H., and Nawrot, E. (2016). Altered miRNA expression in pulmonary sarcoidosis. BMC Med. Genet., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12881-016-0266-6"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1166","DOI":"10.1111\/resp.13364","article-title":"Expression analysis of extracellular microRNA in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis","volume":"23","author":"Kishore","year":"2018","journal-title":"Respirology"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2018.07.012","article-title":"Molecular profiling of regulatory T cells in pulmonary sarcoidosis","volume":"94","author":"Szade","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"5799","article-title":"Downregulation of microRNA-30a in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis patients","volume":"18","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaur, G., Maremanda, K.P., Campos, M., Chand, H.S., Li, F., Hirani, N., Haseeb, M.A., Li, D., and Rahman, I. (2021). Distinct Exosomal miRNA Profiles from BALF and Lung Tissue of COPD and IPF Patients. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.08.24.21262557"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74569","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.12740","article-title":"MiR-185\/AKT and miR-29a\/Collagen 1a pathways are activated in IPF BAL cells","volume":"7","author":"Tsitoura","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_100","first-page":"7105","article-title":"miR-185 and miR-29a are similarly expressed in the bronchoalveolar lavage cells in IPF and lung cancer but common targets DNMT1 and COL1A1 show disease specific patterns","volume":"17","author":"Bibaki","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsb.2021.07.023","article-title":"Targeting PI3K\/AKT signaling for treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Pharm. Sin. B"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L81","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00051.2010","article-title":"MAPK signaling pathways regulate IL-8 mRNA stability and IL-8 protein expression in cystic fibrosis lung epithelial cell lines","volume":"300","author":"Bhattacharyya","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Cell. Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1080\/01902148.2021.1999536","article-title":"A RAS inhibitor reduces allergic airway remodeling via regulating IL-33-derived type 2 innate lymphoid cells","volume":"47","author":"Tezuka","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Lung Res."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.29245\/2578-3009\/2018\/1.1121","article-title":"Endocytosis and human innate immunity","volume":"2","author":"Xiang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barratt, S.L., Flower, V.A., Pauling, J.D., and Millar, A.B. (2018). VEGF (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor) and Fibrotic Lung Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19051269"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1186\/s41232-021-00166-7","article-title":"VEGFR1-tyrosine kinase signaling in pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"41","author":"Amano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Inflamm. Regen."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.4314\/ahs.v21i2.18","article-title":"The threat of persistent bacteria and fungi contamination in tuberculosis sputum cultures","volume":"21","author":"Muzanyi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Afr. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paska, C., Barta, I., Drozdovszky, O., and Antus, B. (2019). Elimination of bacterial DNA during RNA isolation from sputum: Bashing bead vortexing is preferable over prolonged DNase treatment. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0214609"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/24\/3\/2006\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:10:43Z","timestamp":1760119843000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/24\/3\/2006"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,19]]},"references-count":108,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms24032006"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms24032006","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,19]]}}}