{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T00:04:35Z","timestamp":1788998675566,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":93,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,22]],"date-time":"2023-01-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1674345600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS)","award":["20K06872"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20K06872"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sexual differentiation is a major developmental process. Sex differences resulting from sexual differentiation have attracted the attention of researchers. Unraveling what contributes to and underlies sex differences will provide valuable insights into the development of neurodevelopmental disorders that exhibit sex biases. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects an individual\u2019s social interaction and communication abilities, and its male preponderance has been consistently reported in clinical studies. The etiology of male preponderance remains unclear, but progress has been made in studying prenatal sex hormone exposure. The present review examined studies that focused on the association between prenatal testosterone exposure and ASD development, as well as sex-specific behaviors in individuals with ASD. This review also included studies on maternal immune activation-induced developmental abnormalities that also showed striking sex differences in offspring and discussed its possible interacting roles in ASD so as to present a potential approach for future studies on sex biases in ASD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24032203","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,23]],"date-time":"2023-01-23T02:27:45Z","timestamp":1674440865000},"page":"2203","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Prenatal Sex Hormone Exposure Is Associated with the Development of Autism Spectrum Disorder"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Mengwei","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8079-8013","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Noriyoshi","family":"Usui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Japan"},{"name":"United Graduate School of Child Development, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Japan"},{"name":"Global Center for Medical Engineering and Informatics, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Japan"},{"name":"Addiction Research Unit, Osaka Psychiatric Research Center, Osaka Psychiatric Medical Center, Osaka 541-8567, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shoichi","family":"Shimada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Japan"},{"name":"United Graduate School of Child Development, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Japan"},{"name":"Global Center for Medical Engineering and Informatics, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Japan"},{"name":"Addiction Research Unit, Osaka Psychiatric Research Center, Osaka Psychiatric Medical Center, Osaka 541-8567, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-018-0153-2","article-title":"Sex differences in psychiatric disorders: What we can learn from sex chromosome aneuploidies","volume":"44","author":"Green","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-018-0874-2","article-title":"Sex Differences in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Review","volume":"20","author":"Ferri","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2022.06.020","article-title":"Can the \u201cfemale protective effect\u201d liability threshold model explain sex differences in autism spectrum disorder?","volume":"110","author":"Dougherty","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), American Psychiatric Association. [5th ed.].","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1203\/PDR.0b013e31819e7203","article-title":"Epidemiology of pervasive developmental disorders","volume":"65","author":"Fombonne","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaac.2017.03.013","article-title":"What Is the Male-to-Female Ratio in Autism Spectrum Disorder? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"56","author":"Loomes","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.ss7011a1","article-title":"Prevalence and Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorder Among Children Aged 8 Years\u2014Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2018","volume":"70","author":"Maenner","year":"2021","journal-title":"MMWR Surveill. Summ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1002\/ajmg.b.31238","article-title":"Sex differences in repetitive stereotyped behaviors in autism: Implications for genetic liability","volume":"159b","author":"Szatmari","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Genet. Part B Neuropsychiatr. Genet."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/2040-2392-6-7","article-title":"Investigation of sex differences in the expression of RORA and its transcriptional targets in the brain as a potential contributor to the sex bias in autism","volume":"6","author":"Hu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Autism"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"930941","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2022.930941","article-title":"Genomic Strategies for Understanding the Pathophysiology of Autism Spectrum Disorder","volume":"15","author":"Doi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Mol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1186\/2040-2392-4-36","article-title":"SFARI Gene 2.0: A community-driven knowledgebase for the autism spectrum disorders (ASDs)","volume":"4","author":"Abrahams","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Autism"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1242\/dmm.005439","article-title":"SFARI Gene: An evolving database for the autism research community","volume":"3","author":"Packer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dis. Model. Mech."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.4071","article-title":"Advancing the understanding of autism disease mechanisms through genetics","volume":"22","author":"Won","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1038\/ng1933","article-title":"Mutations in the gene encoding the synaptic scaffolding protein SHANK3 are associated with autism spectrum disorders","volume":"39","author":"Durand","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10917","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1005-17.2017","article-title":"Foxp1 in Forebrain Pyramidal Neurons Controls Gene Expression Required for Spatial Learning and Synaptic Plasticity","volume":"37","author":"Araujo","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Off. J. Soc. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2039","DOI":"10.1101\/gad.305037.117","article-title":"Foxp1 regulation of neonatal vocalizations via cortical development","volume":"31","author":"Usui","year":"2017","journal-title":"Genes Dev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1038\/s41576-020-0231-2","article-title":"A framework for an evidence-based gene list relevant to autism spectrum disorder","volume":"21","author":"Schaaf","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2017.119","article-title":"Prenatal fever and autism risk","volume":"23","author":"Hornig","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"860110","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.860110","article-title":"Prenatal Environment and Neurodevelopmental Disorders","volume":"13","author":"Doi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-019-0457-y","article-title":"Sex-dependent behavioral deficits and neuropathology in a maternal immune activation model of autism","volume":"9","author":"Haida","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"772","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aag3194","article-title":"Maternal immune activation: Implications for neuropsychiatric disorders","volume":"353","author":"Estes","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2013-1122","article-title":"Implications of prenatal steroid perturbations for neurodevelopment, behavior, and autism","volume":"35","author":"Gore","year":"2014","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diff.2015.11.001","article-title":"Investigation of sexual dimorphisms through mouse models and hormone\/hormone-disruptor treatments","volume":"91","author":"Ipulan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Differentiation"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1210\/endrev\/bnaa034","article-title":"Considering Sex as a Biological Variable in Basic and Clinical Studies: An Endocrine Society Scientific Statement","volume":"42","author":"Bhargava","year":"2021","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-800222-3.00007-3","article-title":"The potential role of SRY in epigenetic gene regulation during brain sexual differentiation in mammals","volume":"86","author":"Sekido","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Genet."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ge.27.120193.000443","article-title":"SRY and sex determination in mammals","volume":"27","author":"Goodfellow","year":"1993","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1034","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1325","article-title":"Sexual differentiation of the vertebrate nervous system","volume":"7","author":"Morris","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1210\/edrv.20.5.0377","article-title":"The role of androgens in male gender role behavior","volume":"20","author":"Wilson","year":"1999","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2012.00026","article-title":"Sexual differentiation of the rodent brain: Dogma and beyond","volume":"6","author":"Lenz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4837","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-41258-2","article-title":"Prenatal Allergen Exposure Perturbs Sexual Differentiation and Programs Lifelong Changes in Adult Social and Sexual Behavior","volume":"9","author":"Lenz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1444","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhm180","article-title":"Mapping the early cortical folding process in the preterm newborn brain","volume":"18","author":"Dubois","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2007.03.001","article-title":"Evolving knowledge of sex differences in brain structure, function, and chemistry","volume":"62","author":"Cosgrove","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1997.00550140045011","article-title":"Language-associated cortical regions are proportionally larger in the female brain","volume":"54","author":"Harasty","year":"1997","journal-title":"Arch. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhm079","article-title":"Morphology of the ventral frontal cortex: Relationship to femininity and social cognition","volume":"18","author":"Wood","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/11.6.490","article-title":"Normal sexual dimorphism of the adult human brain assessed by in vivo magnetic resonance imaging","volume":"11","author":"Goldstein","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.11-04-00933.1991","article-title":"Sex differences in the corpus callosum of the living human being","volume":"11","author":"Allen","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Off. J. Soc. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"1161","article-title":"Age and sex differences in the cerebellum and the ventral pons: A prospective MR study of healthy adults","volume":"22","author":"Raz","year":"2001","journal-title":"AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(84)90242-7","article-title":"Pre- and postnatal influence of testosterone propionate and diethylstilbestrol on differentiation of the sexually dimorphic nucleus of the preoptic area in male and female rats","volume":"302","author":"Coquelin","year":"1984","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1316909110","article-title":"Sex differences in the structural connectome of the human brain","volume":"111","author":"Ingalhalikar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1023\/B:JADD.0000022607.19833.00","article-title":"The empathy quotient: An investigation of adults with Asperger syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences","volume":"34","author":"Wheelwright","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1186\/s13229-019-0276-2","article-title":"Visual attention to faces in children with autism spectrum disorder: Are there sex differences?","volume":"10","author":"Harrop","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Autism"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.2049","article-title":"Gender differences in restricted and repetitive behaviors and interests in youth with autism","volume":"12","author":"Antezana","year":"2019","journal-title":"Autism Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1186\/s13229-015-0004-5","article-title":"Recurrence rates provide evidence for sex-differential, familial genetic liability for autism spectrum disorders in multiplex families and twins","volume":"6","author":"Werling","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Autism"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1186\/2040-2392-5-19","article-title":"Gender differences in emotionality and sociability in children with autism spectrum disorders","volume":"5","author":"Head","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Autism"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1186\/2040-2392-5-46","article-title":"Dysregulation of estrogen receptor beta (ER\u03b2), aromatase (CYP19A1), and ER co-activators in the middle frontal gyrus of autism spectrum disorder subjects","volume":"5","author":"Crider","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Autism"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarachana, T., Xu, M., Wu, R.C., and Hu, V.W. (2011). Sex hormones in autism: Androgens and estrogens differentially and reciprocally regulate RORA, a novel candidate gene for autism. PloS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0017116"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2009.09.120","article-title":"Increased dendritic spine densities on cortical projection neurons in autism spectrum disorders","volume":"1309","author":"Hutsler","year":"2010","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2010-1359","article-title":"Increased activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis in infancy results in increased androgen action in premature boys","volume":"96","author":"Seuri","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2018.00497","article-title":"SNPs Associated With Testosterone Levels Influence Human Facial Morphology","volume":"9","author":"Roosenboom","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Genet."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.4389-11.2012","article-title":"Fetal testosterone influences sexually dimorphic gray matter in the human brain","volume":"32","author":"Lombardo","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Off. J. Soc. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1007\/s10508-011-9864-8","article-title":"Effects of fetal testosterone on visuospatial ability","volume":"41","author":"Auyeung","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Sex. Behav."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1186\/2040-2392-1-11","article-title":"Foetal testosterone and autistic traits in 18 to 24-month-old children","volume":"1","author":"Auyeung","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Autism"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1348\/000712608X311731","article-title":"Fetal testosterone and autistic traits","volume":"100","author":"Auyeung","year":"2009","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pivovarciova, A., Durdiakova, J., Babinska, K., Kubranska, A., Vokalova, L., Minarik, G., Celec, P., Murin, M., and Ostatnikova, D. (2016). Testosterone and Androgen Receptor Sensitivity in Relation to Hyperactivity Symptoms in Boys with Autism Spectrum Disorders. PloS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0149657"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"898","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2265.2012.04443.x","article-title":"Pervasive developmental disorders in children of hyperandrogenic women with polycystic ovary syndrome: A longitudinal case-control study","volume":"77","author":"Palomba","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-018-0186-7","article-title":"Polycystic ovary syndrome and autism: A test of the prenatal sex steroid theory","volume":"8","author":"Cherskov","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"55","article-title":"The sexually dimorphic nucleus of the preoptic area in the human brain: A comparative morphometric study","volume":"164","author":"Hofman","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Anat."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/0031-9384(71)90030-8","article-title":"Neonatal administration of androstenedione, testosterone or testosterone propionate: Effects on ovulation, sexual receptivity and aggressive behavior in female mice","volume":"6","author":"Edwards","year":"1971","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1210\/endo-65-3-369","article-title":"Organizing action of prenatally administered testosterone propionate on the tissues mediating mating behavior in the female guinea pig","volume":"65","author":"Phoenix","year":"1959","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104644","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yhbeh.2019.104644","article-title":"Is testosterone linked to human aggression? A meta-analytic examination of the relationship between baseline, dynamic, and manipulated testosterone on human aggression","volume":"123","author":"Geniole","year":"2020","journal-title":"Horm. Behav."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.9758\/cpn.2021.19.1.26","article-title":"Second-to-Fourth Digit Ratio (2D:4D) in Psychiatric Disorders: A Systematic Review of Case-control Studies","volume":"19","author":"Rodolico","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Psychopharmacol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2009.04467.x","article-title":"Autism: The empathizing-systemizing (E-S) theory","volume":"1156","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sc.i"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9348","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-09939-y","article-title":"Hypermasculinised facial morphology in boys and girls with Autism Spectrum Disorder and its association with symptomatology","volume":"7","author":"Tan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1597","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.2537","article-title":"Testing the extreme male brain hypothesis: Is autism spectrum disorder associated with a more male-typical brain?","volume":"14","author":"Zietsch","year":"2021","journal-title":"Autism Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105039","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2020.105039","article-title":"Association of serum allopregnanolone with restricted and repetitive behaviors in adult males with autism","volume":"123","author":"Chew","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6613(02)01904-6","article-title":"The extreme male brain theory of autism","volume":"6","year":"2002","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1115455","article-title":"Sex differences in the brain: Implications for explaining autism","volume":"310","author":"Knickmeyer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baron-Cohen, S., Lombardo, M.V., Auyeung, B., Ashwin, E., Chakrabarti, B., and Knickmeyer, R. (2011). Why are autism spectrum conditions more prevalent in males?. PLoS Biol., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.1001081"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2012.03.001","article-title":"Sex steroid levels temporarily increase in response to acute psychosocial stress in healthy men and women","volume":"84","author":"Lennartsson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychophysiol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2017.07.003","article-title":"Prenatal developmental origins of behavior and mental health: The influence of maternal stress in pregnancy","volume":"117","author":"Lahti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16057","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2016.57","article-title":"Polycystic ovary syndrome","volume":"2","author":"Azziz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Prim."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/dew328","article-title":"Performance of mass spectrometry steroid profiling for diagnosis of polycystic ovary syndrome","volume":"32","author":"Handelsman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2573","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/17.10.2573","article-title":"Maternal serum androgens in pregnant women with polycystic ovarian syndrome: Possible implications in prenatal androgenization","volume":"17","author":"Maliqueo","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1093\/humupd\/dmx013","article-title":"Is foetal hyperexposure to androgens a cause of PCOS?","volume":"23","author":"Filippou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod. Update"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2021.03.015","article-title":"Testosterone interrupts binding of Neurexin and Neuroligin that are expressed in a highly socialized rodent, Octodon degus","volume":"551","author":"Ikai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1052","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2016.08.016","article-title":"Altered Cortical Dynamics and Cognitive Function upon Haploinsufficiency of the Autism-Linked Excitatory Synaptic Suppressor MDGA2","volume":"91","author":"Connor","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2011.05.002","article-title":"Multiple recurrent de novo CNVs, including duplications of the 7q11.23 Williams syndrome region, are strongly associated with autism","volume":"70","author":"Sanders","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2006.08.017","article-title":"High frequency of neurexin 1beta signal peptide structural variants in patients with autism","volume":"409","author":"Feng","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12278","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.221451898","article-title":"Increased anxiety and synaptic plasticity in estrogen receptor beta\u2014Deficient mice","volume":"98","author":"Krezel","year":"2001","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/0031-9384(79)90116-1","article-title":"Prenatal exposure to testosterone and its precursors influences morphology and later behavioral responsiveness to testosterone of female mice","volume":"23","author":"Gandelman","year":"1979","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0018-506X(79)90021-7","article-title":"Prenatal exposure to androgen influences morphology and aggressive behavior of male and female mice","volume":"12","year":"1979","journal-title":"Horm. Behav."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuint.2015.04.008","article-title":"Abnormal instability, excess density, and aberrant morphology of dendritic spines in prenatally testosterone-exposed mice","volume":"85\u201386","author":"Hatanaka","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurochem. Int."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-3472(77)90023-9","article-title":"Testosterone and persistence in mice","volume":"25","author":"Archer","year":"1977","journal-title":"Anim. Behav."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10695","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2178-07.2007","article-title":"Maternal immune activation alters fetal brain development through interleukin-6","volume":"27","author":"Smith","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Off. J. Soc. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16928","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-53294-z","article-title":"Maternal and early postnatal immune activation produce sex-specific effects on autism-like behaviors and neuroimmune function in mice","volume":"9","author":"Carlezon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ENEURO.0358-19.2019","DOI":"10.1523\/ENEURO.0358-19.2019","article-title":"\u201cFemales Are Not Just \u2018Protected\u2019 Males\u201d: Sex-Specific Vulnerabilities in Placenta and Brain after Prenatal Immune Disruption","volume":"6","author":"Braun","year":"2019","journal-title":"ENeuro"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijdevneu.2016.07.001","article-title":"Prenatal exposure to sodium valproate alters androgen receptor expression in the developing cerebellum in a region and age specific manner in male and female rats","volume":"53","author":"Miquel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Dev. Neurosci. Off. J. Int. Soc. Dev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajhg.2014.02.001","article-title":"A higher mutational burden in females supports a \"female protective model\" in neurodevelopmental disorders","volume":"94","author":"Jacquemont","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"S403","article-title":"Testosterone and the brain: From cognition to autism","volume":"69","author":"Hodosy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Physiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2018.01.002","article-title":"Genes and Pathways Regulated by Androgens in Human Neural Cells, Potential Candidates for the Male Excess in Autism Spectrum Disorder","volume":"84","author":"Quartier","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1297","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-015-2669-1","article-title":"Gender Differences in the Social Motivation and Friendship Experiences of Autistic and Non-autistic Adolescents","volume":"46","author":"Sedgewick","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaac.2011.11.003","article-title":"Toward brief \u201cRed Flags\u201d for autism screening: The Short Autism Spectrum Quotient and the Short Quantitative Checklist for Autism in toddlers in 1,000 cases and 3,000 controls [corrected]","volume":"51","author":"Allison","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3281","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-016-2872-8","article-title":"The Experiences of Late-diagnosed Women with Autism Spectrum Conditions: An Investigation of the Female Autism Phenotype","volume":"46","author":"Bargiela","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/24\/3\/2203\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:13:24Z","timestamp":1760120004000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/24\/3\/2203"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,22]]},"references-count":93,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms24032203"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms24032203","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,22]]}}}