{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]],"date-time":"2026-01-31T08:12:22Z","timestamp":1769847142240,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":134,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,25]],"date-time":"2023-01-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1674604800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"VAPSHCS","award":["RF-1 AG059088"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RF-1 AG059088"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RF-1 AG059088"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RF-1 AG059088"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this review manuscript, we discuss the effects of select common viruses on insulin sensitivity and blood\u2013brain barrier (BBB) function and the potential overlapping and distinct mechanisms involved in these effects. More specifically, we discuss the effects of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), herpes, hepatitis, influenza, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and SARS-CoV-2 viruses on insulin sensitivity and BBB function and the proposed underlying mechanisms. These viruses differ in their ability to be transported across the BBB, disrupt the BBB, and\/or alter the function of the BBB. For RSV and SARS-CoV-2, diabetes increases the risk of infection with the virus, in addition to viral infection increasing the risk for development of diabetes. For HIV and hepatitis C and E, enhanced TNF-a levels play a role in the detrimental effects. The winter of 2022\u20132023 has been labeled as a tridemic as influenza, RSV, and COVID-19 are all of concern during this flu season. There is an ongoing discussion about whether combined viral exposures of influenza, RSV, and COVID-19 have additive, synergistic, or interference effects. Therefore, increased efforts are warranted to determine how combined viral exposures affect insulin sensitivity and BBB function.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24032377","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,26]],"date-time":"2023-01-26T01:57:07Z","timestamp":1674698227000},"page":"2377","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["The Effects of Viruses on Insulin Sensitivity and Blood\u2013Brain Barrier Function"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9861-9893","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jacob","family":"Raber","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Behavioral Neuroscience, Neurology and Radiation Medicine; Affiliate Scientist, Division of Neuroscience, ONPRC, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8118-120X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elizabeth M.","family":"Rhea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA 98108, USA"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98108, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"William A.","family":"Banks","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA 98108, USA"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98108, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2018.08.003","article-title":"Insulin Receptor-Mediated Stimulation Boosts T Cell Immunity during Inflammation and Infection","volume":"28","author":"Tsai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1177\/1753425920954281","article-title":"Immune response and blood\u2013brain barrier dysfunction during viral neuroinvasion","volume":"27","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Innate Immun."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(1982). 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