{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,28]],"date-time":"2026-10-28T04:57:49Z","timestamp":1793163469974,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":102,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,26]],"date-time":"2023-01-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1674691200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Shigella species are the main cause of bacillary diarrhoea or shigellosis in humans. These organisms are the inhabitants of the human intestinal tract; however, they are one of the main concerns in public health in both developed and developing countries. In this study, we reviewed and summarised the previous studies and recent advances in molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis of Shigella Dysenteriae and non-Dysenteriae species. Regarding the molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis and the presence of virulence factor encoding genes in Shigella strains, species of this bacteria are categorised into Dysenteriae and non-Dysenteriae clinical groups. Shigella species uses attachment, invasion, intracellular motility, toxin secretion and host cell interruption mechanisms, causing mild diarrhoea, haemorrhagic colitis and haemolytic uremic syndrome diseases in humans through the expression of effector delivery systems, protein effectors, toxins, host cell immune system evasion and iron uptake genes. The investigation of these genes and molecular mechanisms can help us to develop and design new methods to detect and differentiate these organisms in food and clinical samples and determine appropriate strategies to prevent and treat the intestinal and extraintestinal infections caused by these enteric pathogens.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24032448","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,27]],"date-time":"2023-01-27T01:58:59Z","timestamp":1674784739000},"page":"2448","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":71,"title":["Molecular Mechanisms of Shigella Pathogenesis; Recent Advances"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1412-0890","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Babak","family":"Pakbin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Werner Siemens Chair of Synthetic Biotechnology, Department of Chemistry, Technical University of Munich (TUM), Lichtenberg Str. 4, 85748 Garching bei M\u00fcnchen, Germany"},{"name":"Institute for Life Technologies, University of Applied Sciences Western Switzerland Valais-Wallis, 1950 Sion, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4516-5146","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wolfram Manuel","family":"Br\u00fcck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Life Technologies, University of Applied Sciences Western Switzerland Valais-Wallis, 1950 Sion, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2113-6957","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas B.","family":"Br\u00fcck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Werner Siemens Chair of Synthetic Biotechnology, Department of Chemistry, Technical University of Munich (TUM), Lichtenberg Str. 4, 85748 Garching bei M\u00fcnchen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1128\/ecosalplus.ESP-0006-2017","article-title":"A brief history of Shigella","volume":"8","author":"Lampel","year":"2018","journal-title":"EcoSal Plus"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2008.10.003","article-title":"The molecular evolutionary history of Shigella spp. and enteroinvasive Escherichia coli","volume":"9","author":"Peng","year":"2009","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2016.00045","article-title":"Shigella diversity and changing landscape: Insights for the twenty-first century","volume":"6","author":"Anderson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1111\/lam.12690","article-title":"Update on: Shigella new serogroups\/serotypes and their antimicrobial resistance","volume":"64","author":"Anandan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2017.09.025","article-title":"Emergence of antibiotic resistant Shigella species: A matter of concern","volume":"11","author":"Puzari","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Infect. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6362","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.2603","article-title":"Genetic diversity and antibiotic resistance of Shigella spp. isolates from food products","volume":"9","author":"Pakbin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Moxley, R.A. (2022). Veterinary Microbiology, John Wiley and Sons."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"fnac042","DOI":"10.1093\/femsle\/fnac042","article-title":"Phylogenetic analysis and antibiotic resistance of Shigella sonnei isolates","volume":"369","author":"Pakbin","year":"2022","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1080\/10408390500295458","article-title":"Shigella as a foodborne pathogen and current methods for detection in food","volume":"46","author":"Warren","year":"2006","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2780","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-06746-y","article-title":"FTIR differentiation based on genomic DNA for species identification of Shigella isolates from stool samples","volume":"12","author":"Pakbin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)33296-8","article-title":"Shigellosis","volume":"391","author":"Kotloff","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Bennish, M.L., and Ahmed, S. (2020). Hunter\u2019s Tropical Medicine and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Keusch, G.T. (2009). Bacterial Infections of Humans, Springer."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, T., Leung, R.K.-K., Zhou, Z., Liu, R., Zhang, X., and Zhang, L. (2014). Investigation of key interventions for shigellosis outbreak control in China. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0095006"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1229","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(18)30475-4","article-title":"Morbidity and mortality due to Shigella and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli diarrhoea: The Global Burden of Disease Study 1990\u20132016","volume":"18","author":"Khalil","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pakbin, B., Basti, A.A., Khanjari, A., Azimi, L., Br\u00fcck, W.M., and Karimi, A. (2021). RAPD and ERIC-PCR coupled with HRM for species identification of non-dysenteriae Shigella species; as a potential alternative method. BMC Res. Notes, 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-021-05759-6"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pakbin, B., Didban, A., Monfared, Y.K., Mahmoudi, R., Peymani, A., and Modabber, M.R. (2021). Antibiotic susceptibility and genetic relatedness of Shigella species isolated from food and human stool samples in Qazvin, Iran. BMC Res. Notes, 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-021-05554-3"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4529","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.2431","article-title":"Investigation of antimicrobial susceptibility and virulence factor genes in Trueperella pyogenes isolated from clinical mastitis cases of dairy cows","volume":"9","author":"Mohammadzadeh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2022.10.018","article-title":"Antimicrobial susceptibility, virulence genes and genomic characterization of Trueperella pyogenes isolated from abscesses in dairy cattle","volume":"154","author":"Tamai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105435","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2022.105435","article-title":"Expression of virulence factor genes in co-infections with Trueperella pyogenes isolates and other bacterial pathogens; an in vivo study","volume":"164","author":"Tamai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6708","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.1965","article-title":"Genotypic and antimicrobial resistance characterizations of Cronobacter sakazakii isolated from powdered milk infant formula: A comparison between domestic and imported products","volume":"8","author":"Pakbin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pakbin, B., Allahyari, S., Amani, Z., Br\u00fcck, W.M., Mahmoudi, R., and Peymani, A. (2021). Prevalence, Phylogroups and Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Escherichia coli Isolates from Food Products. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10111291"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pakbin, B., Br\u00fcck, W.M., and Rossen, J.W. (2021). Virulence factors of enteric pathogenic Escherichia coli: A review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202108.0348.v1"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.3055","article-title":"A quantitative prevalence of Escherichia coli O157 in different food samples using real-time qPCR method","volume":"11","author":"Pakbin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wilson, B.A., Winkler, M., and Ho, B.T. (2020). Bacterial Pathogenesis: A Molecular Approach, John Wiley and Sons.","DOI":"10.1128\/9781555819415"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4674235","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/4674235","article-title":"Review on major foodborne zoonotic bacterial pathogens","volume":"2020","author":"Abebe","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Trop. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gyles, C., and Prescott, J. (2010). Pathogenesis of Bacterial Infections in Animals, John Wiley and Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470958209"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4.1.05","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.VMBF-0017-2015","article-title":"Evolution of bacterial pathogens within the human host","volume":"4","author":"Bliven","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-2920.2012.02837.x","article-title":"Bacterial pathogens: From natural ecosystems to human hosts","volume":"15","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e23","DOI":"10.1038\/emi.2014.23","article-title":"Molecular basis of host specificity in human pathogenic bacteria","volume":"3","author":"Pan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00022-13","article-title":"Recent advances in understanding enteric pathogenic Escherichia coli","volume":"26","author":"Croxen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1038\/35021212","article-title":"Pathogenic strategies of enteric bacteria","volume":"406","author":"Donnenberg","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbpa.2008.01.023","article-title":"Discovery of virulence factors of pathogenic bacteria","volume":"12","author":"Wu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D325","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gki008","article-title":"VFDB: A reference database for bacterial virulence factors","volume":"33","author":"Chen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johnson, D.I. (2018). Bacterial Pathogens and Their Virulence Factors, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-67651-7"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Belkum, A., Almeida, C., Bardiaux, B., Barrass, S.V., Butcher, S.J., \u00c7aykara, T., Chowdhury, S., Datar, R., Eastwood, I., and Goldman, A. (2021). Host-pathogen adhesion as the basis of innovative diagnostics for emerging pathogens. Diagnostics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics11071259"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1527","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aar2094","article-title":"Molecular mechanism of extreme mechanostability in a pathogen adhesin","volume":"359","author":"Milles","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2018.01.151","article-title":"Host-bacteria interaction and adhesin study for development of therapeutics","volume":"112","author":"Solanki","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.21315\/mjms2022.29.1.2","article-title":"Advances in the Study of Bacterial Toxins, Their Roles and Mechanisms in Pathogenesis","volume":"29","author":"Ghazaei","year":"2022","journal-title":"Malays. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jprot.2016.04.029","article-title":"Foodborne pathogens and their toxins","volume":"147","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Proteom."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2265","DOI":"10.1111\/1541-4337.12737","article-title":"Pore-forming toxins of foodborne pathogens","volume":"20","author":"Banerji","year":"2021","journal-title":"Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-04484-1","article-title":"Development of high-resolution melting (HRM) assay to differentiate the species of Shigella isolates from stool and food samples","volume":"12","author":"Pakbin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"89","article-title":"Current aspects of Shigella pathogenesis","volume":"46","author":"Torres","year":"2004","journal-title":"Rev. Latinoam. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1186\/s40348-022-00145-z","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of Shigella effector proteins: A common pathogen among diarrheic pediatric population","volume":"9","author":"Nasser","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2020.07.007","article-title":"Shigella infection and host cell death: A double-edged sword for the host and pathogen survival","volume":"59","author":"Ashida","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2016.00029","article-title":"Molecular and cellular mechanisms of Shigella flexneri dissemination","volume":"6","author":"Agaisse","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7.2.28","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.BAI-0023-2019","article-title":"Shigella pathogenesis: New insights through advanced methodologies","volume":"7","author":"Schnupf","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2016.00038","article-title":"Cellular aspects of Shigella pathogenesis: Focus on the manipulation of host cell processes","volume":"6","author":"Killackey","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1365","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2958.2010.07413.x","article-title":"The Shigella T3SS needle transmits a signal for MxiC release, which controls secretion of effectors","volume":"78","author":"Blocker","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Muthuramalingam, M., Whittier, S.K., Picking, W.L., and Picking, W.D. (2021). The Shigella Type III Secretion System: An Overview from Top to Bottom. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9020451"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bajunaid, W., Haidar-Ahmad, N., Kottarampatel, A.H., Ourida Manigat, F., Silu\u00e9, N., Tchagang, C.F., Tomaro, K., and Campbell-Valois, F.-X. (2020). The T3SS of Shigella: Expression, structure, function, and role in vacuole escape. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8121933"},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Belotserkovsky, I., and Sansonetti, P.J. (2018). Escherichia coli, a Versatile Pathogen, Springer."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00560-17","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00560-17","article-title":"Cooperative immune suppression by Escherichia coli and Shigella effector proteins","volume":"86","author":"Alto","year":"2018","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micres.2015.08.006","article-title":"The roles of the virulence factor IpaB in Shigella spp. in the escape from immune cells and invasion of epithelial cells","volume":"181","author":"Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Microbiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6452","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1801310115","article-title":"Synthetic bottom-up approach reveals the complex interplay of Shigella effectors in regulation of epithelial cell death","volume":"115","author":"Mou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, Z., Wang, W., Cao, M., Zhu, Q., Ma, T., Zhang, Y., Liu, G., Zhou, X., Li, B., and Shi, Y. (2021). Virulence factors and molecular characteristics of Shigella flexneri isolated from calves with diarrhea. BMC Microbiol., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-021-02277-0"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.femsle.2005.08.046","article-title":"Shigella spp. and enteroinvasive Escherichia coli pathogenicity factors","volume":"252","author":"Parsot","year":"2005","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539697","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/539697","article-title":"Virulence factors associated with pediatric shigellosis in Brazilian Amazon","volume":"2014","author":"Cruz","year":"2014","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2020.107638","article-title":"Actin assembly around the Shigella-containing vacuole promotes successful infection","volume":"31","author":"Bergqvist","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"020048","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0123115","article-title":"Determination of some virulence genes of Shigella sonnei isolated from children stool suffering from diarrhea and investigation about isolates producing Shiga toxin","volume":"2394","author":"Alwan","year":"2022","journal-title":"AIP Conf. Proc."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2022.05.027","article-title":"Shigella \u201cOsp\u201d pression of innate immunity","volume":"185","author":"Wright","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Faherty, C.S., and Lampel, K.A. (2019). Food Microbiology Fundamentals and Frontiers, John Wiley and Sons."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2015.00100","article-title":"Shigella IpaH family effectors as a versatile model for studying pathogenic bacteria","volume":"5","author":"Ashida","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2792","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M208383200","article-title":"Structure-function analysis of invasion plasmid antigen C (IpaC) from Shigella flexneri","volume":"278","author":"Kueltzo","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1401","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2019.1606971","article-title":"Serum IgG antibodies to Shigella lipopolysaccharide antigens\u2014A correlate of protection against shigellosis","volume":"15","author":"Cohen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccines Immunother."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"465","article-title":"Investigation of Shigella lipopolysaccharides Effects on Immunity Stimulation of Host Cells","volume":"10","author":"Nezhad","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Trans. J. Eng. Manag. Appl. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eESP-0034","DOI":"10.1128\/ecosalplus.ESP-0034-2020","article-title":"Iron Transport and Metabolism in Escherichia, Shigella, and Salmonella","volume":"9","author":"Mey","year":"2021","journal-title":"EcoSal Plus"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcdb.2019.07.014","article-title":"Autophagy in intracellular bacterial infection","volume":"101","author":"Hu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Semin. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"996","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-018-0215-6","article-title":"N\u03b5-fatty acylation of multiple membrane-associated proteins by Shigella IcsB effector to modulate host function","volume":"3","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1106036","article-title":"Escape of intracellular Shigella from autophagy","volume":"307","author":"Ogawa","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-695X.2011.00778.x","article-title":"Shigella enterotoxin-2 is a type III effector that participates in Shigella-induced interleukin 8 secretion by epithelial cells","volume":"61","author":"Toro","year":"2011","journal-title":"FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1556\/030.65.2018.037","article-title":"Prevalence of enterotoxin-encoding genes among diverse Shigella strains isolated from patients with diarrhea, southwest Iran","volume":"66","author":"Moosavian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Microbiol. Immunol. Hung."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ingersoll, M., Groisman, E.A., and Zychlinsky, A. (2002). Pathogenicity Islands and the Evolution of Pathogenic Microbes, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-56031-6_4"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3665","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.1649","article-title":"Differentiation of stx1A gene for detection of Escherichia coli serotype O157: H7 and Shigella dysenteriae type 1 in food samples using high resolution melting curve analysis","volume":"8","author":"Pakbin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Strockbine, N.A., and Maurelli, A.T. (2015). Bergey\u2019s Manual of Systematics of Archaea and Bacteria, John Wiley and Sons."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1425","DOI":"10.1007\/s00467-008-0820-3","article-title":"Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli and Shigella dysenteriae type 1-induced haemolytic uraemic syndrome","volume":"23","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pediatr. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"22","article-title":"Epidemiology of Dysentery, Uganda, 2014\u20132018","volume":"5","author":"Nabatanzi","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Interv. Epidemiol. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1166","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(17)30431-X","article-title":"Shigella infection in children and adults: A formidable foe","volume":"5","author":"Kotloff","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, M., Wang, W., Zhang, L., Liu, G., Zhou, X., Li, B., Shi, Y., Zhu, Z., and Zhang, J. (2021). Epidemic and molecular characterization of fluoroquinolone-resistant Shigella dysenteriae 1 isolates from calves with diarrhea. BMC Microbiol., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-020-02050-9"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2017.00064","article-title":"How do the virulence factors of Shigella work together to cause disease?","volume":"7","author":"Mattock","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"793","article-title":"A review on shigellosis: Pathogenesis and antibiotic resistance","volume":"14","author":"Salman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Drug Invent. Today"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0000000000000475","article-title":"Recent insights into Shigella: A major contributor to the global diarrhoeal disease burden","volume":"31","author":"Baker","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2265","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of Escherichia coli pathogenicity","volume":"8","author":"Croxen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro818","article-title":"Pathogenic Escherichia coli","volume":"2","author":"Kaper","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2014.11.013","article-title":"Molecular characterization of multidrug-resistant Shigella spp. of food origin","volume":"194","author":"Ahmed","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6445","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gki954","article-title":"Genome dynamics and diversity of Shigella species, the etiologic agents of bacillary dysentery","volume":"33","author":"Yang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ovac049","DOI":"10.1093\/lambio\/ovac049","article-title":"A novel strain of Shigella isolated from the gut of Lepidocephalichthys guntea has in its genome a complete gene package for Typell secretion system, and elaborate repertoire of genes responsible for multiple antibiotic-resistance and metal resistance via specific efflux channels","volume":"76","author":"Basak","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E45","DOI":"10.2527\/jas.2006-508","article-title":"Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli: An overview","volume":"85","author":"Gyles","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2012.07.016","article-title":"Shiga toxins","volume":"60","author":"Bergan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_90","first-page":"2","article-title":"Shiga toxin (Stx) classification, structure, and function","volume":"2","year":"2014","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-800262-9.00003-2","article-title":"Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli","volume":"86","author":"Smith","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2279","article-title":"Shiga toxins\u2014From cell biology to biomedical applications","volume":"8","author":"Johannes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hughes, A.C., Zhang, Y., Bai, X., Xiong, Y., Wang, Y., Yang, X., Xu, Q., and He, X. (2019). Structural and functional characterization of Stx2k, a new subtype of Shiga toxin 2. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8010004"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joseph, A., Cointe, A., Mariani Kurkdjian, P., Rafat, C., and Hertig, A. (2020). Shiga toxin-associated hemolytic uremic syndrome: A narrative review. Toxins, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins12020067"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1597","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-015-7236-3","article-title":"Shiga toxins: From structure and mechanism to applications","volume":"100","author":"Chan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.6b05706","article-title":"Mechanism of Shiga toxin clustering on membranes","volume":"11","author":"Pezeshkian","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sandvig, K., Kavaliauskiene, S., and Skotland, T. (2021). The Protein Toxins Ricin and Shiga Toxin as Tools to Explore Cellular Mechanisms of Internalization and Intracellular Transport. Toxins, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins13060377"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u00c1lvarez, R.S., G\u00f3mez, F.D., Zotta, E., Paton, A.W., Paton, J.C., Ibarra, C., Sacerdoti, F., and Amaral, M.M. (2021). Combined action of shiga toxin type 2 and subtilase cytotoxin in the pathogenesis of hemolytic uremic syndrome. Toxins, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins13080536"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmm.2018.09.003","article-title":"Shiga toxin-glycosphingolipid interaction: Status quo of research with focus on primary human brain and kidney endothelial cells","volume":"308","author":"Legros","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., Liu, B., Ding, X., Bin, P., Yang, Y., and Zhu, G. (2022). Regulatory Mechanisms between Quorum Sensing and Virulence in Salmonella. Microorganisms, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10112211"},{"key":"ref_101","first-page":"487","article-title":"The effect of quorum sensing system for growth competitiveness on Shigella flexneri","volume":"37","author":"Xu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Yi Chuan Hered."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2018.11.006","article-title":"Quorum sensing inhibitors as antipathogens: Biotechnological applications","volume":"37","author":"Kalia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Adv."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/24\/3\/2448\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:16:30Z","timestamp":1760120190000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/24\/3\/2448"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,26]]},"references-count":102,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms24032448"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms24032448","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,26]]}}}