{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T13:26:15Z","timestamp":1790342775717,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":113,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,3]],"date-time":"2023-02-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1675382400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Recent studies have demonstrated that the uterus has its own microbiota. However, there is no consensus on endometrial microbiota composition, thus its role in the healthy uterine environment is still a frontier topic. Endometrial receptivity is key to embryo implantation, and in this specific context immunological tolerance against fetal antigens and the tightly regulated expression of inflammatory mediators are fundamental. According to recent evidence, endometrial microbiota may interact in a very dynamic way with the immune system during the peri-conceptional stage and later during pregnancy. For this reason, a condition of dysbiosis might lead to adverse pregnancy outcomes. The aim of this review is to summarize the evidence on the molecular mechanisms by which the endometrial microbiota may interact with the immune system. For this purpose, the link between dysbiosis and reproductive disorders, such as infertility, recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL), and preterm birth, will be discussed. In conclusion, the most recent findings from molecular analyses will be reported to illustrate and possibly overcome the intrinsic limitations of uterine microbiota detection (low endometrial biomass, high risk of contamination during sampling, and lack of standardization).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24032995","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,3]],"date-time":"2023-02-03T04:21:43Z","timestamp":1675398103000},"page":"2995","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":61,"title":["Endometrial Microbiota and Immune Tolerance in Pregnancy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Annalisa","family":"Inversetti","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, via Rita Levi Montalcini 4, Pieve Emanuele, 20072 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Enrica","family":"Zambella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, via Rita Levi Montalcini 4, Pieve Emanuele, 20072 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alice","family":"Guarano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Humanitas San Pio X, via Francesco Nava 31, 20159 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marinella","family":"Dell\u2019Avanzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Humanitas San Pio X, via Francesco Nava 31, 20159 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicoletta","family":"Di Simone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, via Rita Levi Montalcini 4, Pieve Emanuele, 20072 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"NIH HMP Working Group, Peterson, J., Garges, S., Giovanni, M., McInnes, P., Wang, L., Schloss, J., Bonazzi, V., McEwen, J., and Wetterstrand, K. 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