{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T01:19:49Z","timestamp":1792804789472,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":124,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,8]],"date-time":"2023-02-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1675814400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft DFG","award":["CRC\/TR 296 LOCOTACT P16"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CRC\/TR 296 LOCOTACT P16"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/018mejw64","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft DFG","award":["825161"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["825161"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/018mejw64","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"EU Horizon 2020 programme","award":["CRC\/TR 296 LOCOTACT P16"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CRC\/TR 296 LOCOTACT P16"]}]},{"name":"EU Horizon 2020 programme","award":["825161"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["825161"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The adequate availability and metabolism of three essential trace elements, iodine, selenium and iron, provide the basic requirements for the function and action of the thyroid hormone system in humans, vertebrate animals and their evolutionary precursors. Selenocysteine-containing proteins convey both cellular protection along with H2O2-dependent biosynthesis and the deiodinase-mediated (in-)activation of thyroid hormones, which is critical for their receptor-mediated mechanism of cellular action. Disbalances between the thyroidal content of these elements challenge the negative feedback regulation of the hypothalamus\u2013pituitary\u2013thyroid periphery axis, causing or facilitating common diseases related to disturbed thyroid hormone status such as autoimmune thyroid disease and metabolic disorders. Iodide is accumulated by the sodium-iodide-symporter NIS, and oxidized and incorporated into thyroglobulin by the hemoprotein thyroperoxidase, which requires local H2O2 as cofactor. The latter is generated by the dual oxidase system organized as \u2018thyroxisome\u2019 at the surface of the apical membrane facing the colloidal lumen of the thyroid follicles. Various selenoproteins expressed in thyrocytes defend the follicular structure and function against life-long exposure to H2O2 and reactive oxygen species derived therefrom. The pituitary hormone thyrotropin (TSH) stimulates all processes required for thyroid hormone synthesis and secretion and regulates thyrocyte growth, differentiation and function. Worldwide deficiencies of nutritional iodine, selenium and iron supply and the resulting endemic diseases are preventable with educational, societal and political measures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24043393","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,8]],"date-time":"2023-02-08T06:00:05Z","timestamp":1675836005000},"page":"3393","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":160,"title":["Selenium, Iodine and Iron\u2013Essential Trace Elements for Thyroid Hormone Synthesis and Metabolism"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9187-9078","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Josef","family":"K\u00f6hrle","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Charit\u00e9\u2013Universit\u00e4tsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, Humboldt-Universit\u00e4t zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Institut f\u00fcr Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Max Rubner Center (MRC) for Cardiovascular Metabolic Renal Research, D-10115 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2042018820920551","DOI":"10.1177\/2042018820920551","article-title":"Levothyroxine prescriptions trends may indicate a downtrend in prescribing","volume":"11","author":"Jonklaas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ther. 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