{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T05:14:19Z","timestamp":1783487659732,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":130,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,10]],"date-time":"2023-02-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1675987200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Italian Ministry of Health","award":["ZEBRANET"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZEBRANET"]}]},{"name":"Italian Ministry of Health","award":["PRIN 2017Z3N3YC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRIN 2017Z3N3YC"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003407","name":"Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ZEBRANET"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZEBRANET"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003407","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003407","name":"Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PRIN 2017Z3N3YC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRIN 2017Z3N3YC"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003407","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Carcinoid syndrome represents a debilitating paraneoplastic disease, caused by the secretion of several substances, occurring in about 10\u201340% of patients with well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumors (NETs). The main signs and symptoms associated with carcinoid syndrome are flushing, diarrhea, hypotension, tachycardia, bronchoconstriction, venous telangiectasia, dyspnea and fibrotic complications (mesenteric and retroperitoneal fibrosis, and carcinoid heart disease). Although there are several drugs available for the treatment of carcinoid syndrome, the lack of therapeutic response, poor tolerance or resistance to drugs are often reported. Preclinical models are indispensable tools for investigating the pathogenesis, mechanisms for tumor progression and new therapeutic approaches for cancer. This paper provides a state-of-the-art overview of in vitro and in vivo models in NETs with carcinoid syndrome, highlighting the future developments and therapeutic approaches in this field.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24043610","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,13]],"date-time":"2023-02-13T03:28:46Z","timestamp":1676258926000},"page":"3610","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Carcinoid Syndrome: Preclinical Models and Future Therapeutic Strategies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2478-683X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giovanni","family":"Vitale","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Laboratory of Geriatric and Oncologic Neuroendocrinology Research, IRCCS, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, 20100 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Silvia","family":"Carra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Endocrine and Metabolic Research, IRCCS, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, 20100 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7562-7981","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ylenia","family":"Alessi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrine Unit, University Hospital \u201cGaetano Martino\u201d of Messina, 98125 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9290-874X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Federica","family":"Campolo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carla","family":"Pandozzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isabella","family":"Zanata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Section of Endocrinology and Internal Medicine, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Annamaria","family":"Colao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, University of Naples Federico II, 80138 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9324-3946","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antongiulio","family":"Faggiano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Sant\u2019Andrea Hospital, ENETS Center of Excellence, Sapienza University of Rome, 00189 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"name":"on behalf of the NIKE Group","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1335","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoncol.2017.0589","article-title":"Trends in the Incidence, Prevalence, and Survival Outcomes in Patients with Neuroendocrine Tumors in the United States","volume":"3","author":"Dasari","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA Oncol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1159\/000381930","article-title":"Carcinoid Heart Disease: From Pathophysiology to Treatment\u2013\u2018Something in the Way It 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