{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T22:21:26Z","timestamp":1788387686327,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,23]],"date-time":"2023-02-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1677110400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovation (MOSTI) Malaysia","award":["CV12211082"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CV12211082"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Since the outbreak of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), various vaccines have been developed for emergency use. The efficacy of the initial vaccines based on the ancestral strain of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has become a point of contention due to the emergence of new variants of concern (VOCs). Therefore, continuous innovation of new vaccines is required to target upcoming VOCs. The receptor binding domain (RBD) of the virus spike (S) glycoprotein has been extensively used in vaccine development due to its role in host cell attachment and penetration. In this study, the RBDs of the Beta (\u03b2) and Delta (\u03b4) variants were fused to the truncated Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus capsid protein without the protruding domain (C\u0394116-MrNV-CP). Immunization of BALB\/c mice with the virus-like particles (VLPs) self-assembled from the recombinant CP showed that, with AddaVax as an adjuvant, a significantly high level of humoral response was elicited. Specifically, mice injected with equimolar of adjuvanted C\u0394116-MrNV-CP fused with the RBD of the \u03b2- and \u03b4-variants increased T helper (Th) cell production with a CD8+\/CD4+ ratio of 0.42. This formulation also induced proliferation of macrophages and lymphocytes. Overall, this study demonstrated that the nodavirus truncated CP fused with the SARS-CoV-2 RBD has potential to be developed as a VLP-based COVID-19 vaccine.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24054398","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,23]],"date-time":"2023-02-23T02:57:34Z","timestamp":1677121054000},"page":"4398","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Virus-like Particles of Nodavirus Displaying the Receptor Binding Domain of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein: A Potential VLP-Based COVID-19 Vaccine"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8848-0704","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kiven","family":"Kumar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9452-198X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wen Siang","family":"Tan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Siti Suri","family":"Arshad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5778-4729","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kok Lian","family":"Ho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2603","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2034577","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine","volume":"383","author":"Polack","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. 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