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These injuries can result in severe degeneration and neuronal cell death in the CNS, including the retina, which is a crucial part of the brain responsible for perceiving and transmitting visual information. The long-term effects of mild\u2013repetitive TBI (rmTBI) are far less studied thus far, even though damage induced by repetitive injuries occurring in the brain is more common, especially amongst athletes. rmTBI can also have a detrimental effect on the retina and the pathophysiology of these injuries is likely to differ from severe TBI (sTBI) retinal injury. Here, we show how rmTBI and sTBI can differentially affect the retina. Our results indicate an increase in the number of activated microglial cells and Caspase3-positive cells in the retina in both traumatic models, suggesting a rise in the level of inflammation and cell death after TBI. The pattern of microglial activation appears distributed and widespread but differs amongst the various retinal layers. sTBI induced microglial activation in both the superficial and deep retinal layers. In contrast to sTBI, no significant change occurred following the repetitive mild injury in the superficial layer, only the deep layer (spanning from the inner nuclear layer to the outer plexiform layer) shows microglial activation. This difference suggests that alternate response mechanisms play a role in the case of the different TBI incidents. The Caspase3 activation pattern showed a uniform increase in both the superficial and deep layers of the retina. This suggests a different action in the course of the disease in sTBI and rmTBI models and points to the need for new diagnostic procedures. Our present results suggest that the retina might serve as such a model of head injuries since the retinal tissue reacts to both forms of TBI and is the most accessible part of the human brain.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24054451","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,24]],"date-time":"2023-02-24T02:32:12Z","timestamp":1677205932000},"page":"4451","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Traumatic Brain Injury Induces Microglial and Caspase3 Activation in the Retina"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3353-4485","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tam\u00e1s","family":"Kov\u00e1cs-\u00d6ller","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Retinal Neurobiology Research Group, Szent\u00e1gothai Research Centre, University of P\u00e9cs, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"},{"name":"Institute of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of 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Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8121-2600","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gergely","family":"Szarka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Retinal Neurobiology Research Group, Szent\u00e1gothai Research Centre, University of P\u00e9cs, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"},{"name":"Institute of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of P\u00e9cs, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"B\u00e1lint","family":"Fazekas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurotrauma Research Group, Szent\u00e1gothai Research Centre, University of P\u00e9cs, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"},{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, Medical School, University of P\u00e9cs, 7623 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"\u00c1d\u00e1m J.","family":"Teng\u00f6lics","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Retinal Neurobiology Research Group, Szent\u00e1gothai Research Centre, University of P\u00e9cs, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"},{"name":"Department of Biological and Visual Sciences, SUNY College of Optometry, New York, NY 10036, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Krisztina","family":"Amrein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurotrauma Research Group, Szent\u00e1gothai Research Centre, University of P\u00e9cs, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"},{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, Medical School, University of P\u00e9cs, 7623 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"},{"name":"ELKH-PTE Clinical Neuroscience MR Research Group, University of P\u00e9cs, 7623 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9578-6944","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Endre","family":"Czeiter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurotrauma Research Group, Szent\u00e1gothai Research Centre, University of P\u00e9cs, 7624 P\u00e9cs, 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