{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T04:28:26Z","timestamp":1772252906893,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,2]],"date-time":"2023-03-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1677715200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"ITHS KL2","award":["NCATS KL2 TR002317"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NCATS KL2 TR002317"]}]},{"name":"University of Washington Department of Pharmacy","award":["NCATS KL2 TR002317"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NCATS KL2 TR002317"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The mechanisms of treatment-resistant epilepsy remain unclear. We have previously shown that frontline administration of therapeutic doses of lamotrigine (LTG), which preferentially inhibits the fast-inactivation state of sodium channels, during corneal kindling of mice promotes cross-resistance to several other antiseizure medicines (ASMs). However, whether this phenomenon extends to monotherapy with ASMs that stabilize the slow inactivation state of sodium channels is unknown. Therefore, this study assessed whether lacosamide (LCM) monotherapy during corneal kindling would promote future development of drug-resistant focal seizures in mice. Male CF-1 mice (n = 40\/group; 18\u201325 g) were administered an anticonvulsant dose of LCM (4.5 mg\/kg, i.p.), LTG (8.5 mg\/kg, i.p.), or vehicle (0.5% methylcellulose) twice daily for two weeks during kindling. A subset of mice (n = 10\/group) were euthanized one day after kindling for immunohistochemical assessment of astrogliosis, neurogenesis, and neuropathology. The dose-related antiseizure efficacy of distinct ASMs, including LTG, LCM, carbamazepine, levetiracetam, gabapentin, perampanel, valproic acid, phenobarbital, and topiramate, was then assessed in the remaining kindled mice. Neither LCM nor LTG administration prevented kindling: 29\/39 vehicle-exposed mice were kindled; 33\/40 LTG-exposed mice were kindled; and 31\/40 LCM-exposed mice were kindled. Mice administered LCM or LTG during kindling became resistant to escalating doses of LCM, LTG, and carbamazepine. Perampanel, valproic acid, and phenobarbital were less potent in LTG- and LCM-kindled mice, whereas levetiracetam and gabapentin retained equivalent potency across groups. Notable differences in reactive gliosis and neurogenesis were also appreciated. This study indicates that early, repeated administration of sodium channel-blocking ASMs, regardless of inactivation state preference, promotes pharmacoresistant chronic seizures. Inappropriate ASM monotherapy in newly diagnosed epilepsy may thus be one driver of future drug resistance, with resistance being highly ASM class specific.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24054848","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,2]],"date-time":"2023-03-02T04:57:38Z","timestamp":1677733058000},"page":"4848","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Frontline Sodium Channel-Blocking Antiseizure Medicine Use Promotes Future Onset of Drug-Resistant Chronic Seizures"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Dannielle","family":"Zierath","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Stephanie","family":"Mizuno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8175-0553","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Melissa","family":"Barker-Haliski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2017.00301","article-title":"Drug-Resistant Epilepsy: Multiple Hypotheses, Few Answers","volume":"8","author":"Tang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. 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