{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,24]],"date-time":"2026-07-24T13:23:16Z","timestamp":1784899396417,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":20,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,7]],"date-time":"2023-03-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1678147200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Army Research Office (ARO)","award":["W911NF0520006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["W911NF0520006"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The idea of flexible body armor has been around for many years. Initial development included shear thickening fluid (STF) as a backbone polymer to impregnate ballistic fibers such as Kevlar. At the core of the ballistic and spike resistance was the instantaneous rise in viscosity of STF during impact. Increase in viscosity was due to the hydroclustering of silica nanoparticles dispersed in polyethylene glycol (PEG) through a centrifuge and evaporation process. When STF composite was dry, hydroclustering was not possible due to absence of any fluidity in PEG. However, particles embedded within the polymer, covered the Kevlar fiber and offered some resistance to spike and ballistic penetration. The resistance was meagre and hence, the goal was to improve it further. This was achieved by creating chemical bonds between particles, and by strongly attaching particles to the fiber. PEG was replaced with silane (3-amino propyl trimethoxysilane), and a fixative cross-linker, Glutaraldehyde (Gluta), was added. Silane installed an amine functional group on the silica nanoparticle surface, and Gluta created strong bridges between distant pairs of amine groups. Amide functional groups present in Kevlar also interacted with Gluta and silane to form a secondary amine, allowing silica particles to attach to fiber. A network of amine bonding was also established across the particle-polymer-fiber system. In synthesizing the armor, silica nanoparticles were dispersed in a mixture of silane, ethanol, water, and Gluta, maintaining an appropriate ratio by weight, and using a sonication technique. Ethanol was used as a dispersion fluid and was evaporated later. Several layers of Kevlar fabric were then soaked with the admixture for about 24 h and dried in an oven. Armor composites were tested in a drop tower according to NIJ115 Standard using spikes. Kinetic energy at impact was calculated and normalized with the aerial density of the armor. NIJ tests revealed that normalized energy for 0-layer penetration increased from 10 J-cm2\/g (STF composite) to 220 J-cm2\/g for the new armor composite, indicating a 22-fold enhancement. SEM and FTIR studies confirmed that this high resistance to spike penetration was due to the formation of stronger C-N, C-H, and C=C-H stretches facilitated by the presence of silane and Gluta.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24065067","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,7]],"date-time":"2023-03-07T02:07:38Z","timestamp":1678154858000},"page":"5067","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Functional Nanocomposites in the Development of Flexible Armor"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Hassan","family":"Mahfuz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ocean and Mechanical Engineering, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vincent","family":"Lambert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Technipfmc plc, Houston, TX 77044, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Floria","family":"Clements","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NextEra Energy Inc., Juno Beach, FL 33408, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Egres, R.G., Lee, Y., Kirkwood, J., Wagner, N., and Wetzel, E. 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Proceedings of the ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, Boston, MA, USA."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/24\/6\/5067\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:49:30Z","timestamp":1760122170000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/24\/6\/5067"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,7]]},"references-count":20,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms24065067"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms24065067","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,7]]}}}