{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T22:41:56Z","timestamp":1790203316284,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":204,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,8]],"date-time":"2023-03-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1678233600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"German Research Foundation (DFG)","award":["MA 2621\/5-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MA 2621\/5-1"]}]},{"name":"German Research Foundation (DFG)","award":["CRC1181\u2014project C04"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CRC1181\u2014project C04"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Intestinal microbiota, and their mutual interactions with host tissues, are pivotal for the maintenance of organ physiology. Indeed, intraluminal signals influence adjacent and even distal tissues. Consequently, disruptions in the composition or functions of microbiota and subsequent altered host\u2013microbiota interactions disturb the homeostasis of multiple organ systems, including the bone. Thus, gut microbiota can influence bone mass and physiology, as well as postnatal skeletal evolution. Alterations in nutrient or electrolyte absorption, metabolism, or immune functions, due to the translocation of microbial antigens or metabolites across intestinal barriers, affect bone tissues, as well. Intestinal microbiota can directly and indirectly alter bone density and bone remodeling. Intestinal dysbiosis and a subsequently disturbed gut\u2013bone axis are characteristic for patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) who suffer from various intestinal symptoms and multiple bone-related complications, such as arthritis or osteoporosis. Immune cells affecting the joints are presumably even primed in the gut. Furthermore, intestinal dysbiosis impairs hormone metabolism and electrolyte balance. On the other hand, less is known about the impact of bone metabolism on gut physiology. In this review, we summarized current knowledge of gut microbiota, metabolites and microbiota-primed immune cells in IBD and bone-related complications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24065161","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,8]],"date-time":"2023-03-08T02:30:23Z","timestamp":1678242623000},"page":"5161","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["Pivotal Role of Intestinal Microbiota and Intraluminal Metabolites for the Maintenance of Gut\u2013Bone Physiology"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Niklas","family":"Gr\u00fcner","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Mikrobiologisches Institut\u2014Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Hygiene, Universit\u00e4tsklinikum Erlangen and Friedrich-Alexander Universit\u00e4t (FAU) Erlangen-N\u00fcrnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna Lisa","family":"Ortlepp","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mikrobiologisches Institut\u2014Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Hygiene, Universit\u00e4tsklinikum Erlangen and Friedrich-Alexander Universit\u00e4t (FAU) Erlangen-N\u00fcrnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2254-6664","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jochen","family":"Mattner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mikrobiologisches Institut\u2014Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Hygiene, Universit\u00e4tsklinikum Erlangen and Friedrich-Alexander Universit\u00e4t (FAU) Erlangen-N\u00fcrnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany"},{"name":"Medical Immunology Campus Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander Universit\u00e4t (FAU) Erlangen-N\u00fcrnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.mi.31.100177.000543","article-title":"Microbial ecology of the gastrointestinal tract","volume":"31","author":"Savage","year":"1977","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.01.013","article-title":"Are We Really Vastly Outnumbered? Revisiting the Ratio of Bacterial to Host Cells in Humans","volume":"164","author":"Sender","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sender, R., Fuchs, S., and Milo, R. (2016). Revised Estimates for the Number of Human and Bacteria Cells in the Body. PLoS Biol., 14.","DOI":"10.1101\/036103"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aschard, H., Laville, V., Tchetgen, E.T., Knights, D., Imhann, F., Seksik, P., Zaitlen, N., Silverberg, M.S., Cosnes, J., and Weersma, R.K. (2019). Genetic effects on the commensal microbiota in inflammatory bowel disease patients. PLoS Genet., 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1008018"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2020068","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2021.2020068","article-title":"The association of weight loss with changes in the gut microbiota diversity, composition, and intestinal permeability: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"14","author":"Koutoukidis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-019-0725-3","article-title":"Baseline microbiota composition modulates antibiotic-mediated effects on the gut microbiota and host","volume":"7","author":"Lavelle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11319","article-title":"Gut microbiota composition correlates with diet and health in the elderly","volume":"488","author":"Claesson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2016.02.002","article-title":"Functional Redundancy-Induced Stability of Gut Microbiota Subjected to Disturbance","volume":"24","author":"Moya","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16088","DOI":"10.1038\/nmicrobiol.2016.88","article-title":"Species-function relationships shape ecological properties of the human gut microbiome","volume":"1","author":"Falony","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15718","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0407076101","article-title":"The gut microbiota as an environmental factor that regulates fat storage","volume":"101","author":"Backhed","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"854","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aad8588","article-title":"Lactobacillus plantarum strain maintains growth of infant mice during chronic undernutrition","volume":"351","author":"Schwarzer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.4185","article-title":"Signals from the gut microbiota to distant organs in physiology and disease","volume":"22","author":"Schroeder","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2018.05.012","article-title":"The Impact of Dietary Fiber on Gut Microbiota in Host Health and Disease","volume":"23","author":"Makki","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2515","article-title":"The gut microbiota shapes intestinal immune responses during health and disease","volume":"9","author":"Round","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.1111\/cmi.12301","article-title":"Intestinal microbiota and its effects on the immune system","volume":"16","author":"Rescigno","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3430","article-title":"Role of the gut microbiota in immunity and inflammatory disease","volume":"13","author":"Kamada","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmm.2016.02.003","article-title":"Faecal microbiota transplantation-A clinical view","volume":"306","author":"Mattner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2017.1290757","article-title":"Intestinal microbiota, fecal microbiota transplantation, and inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"8","author":"Weingarden","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-med-111717-122956","article-title":"Clinical Application and Potential of Fecal Microbiota Transplantation","volume":"70","author":"Ooijevaar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2015.08.061","article-title":"An IL-23R\/IL-22 Circuit Regulates Epithelial Serum Amyloid A to Promote Local Effector Th17 Responses","volume":"163","author":"Sano","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-019-0258-z","article-title":"Gut microbiota-derived metabolites as key actors in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"17","author":"Lavelle","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1038\/s41574-018-0143-9","article-title":"Microbiota and metabolites in metabolic diseases","volume":"15","author":"Cani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-0992-y","article-title":"Colonic epithelial cell diversity in health and inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"567","author":"Parikh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-021-00538-7","article-title":"Does the epithelial barrier hypothesis explain the increase in allergy, autoimmunity and other chronic conditions?","volume":"21","author":"Akdis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154767","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2021.154767","article-title":"FOS\/GOS attenuates high-fat diet induced bone loss via reversing microbiota dysbiosis, high intestinal permeability and systemic inflammation in mice","volume":"119","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1995","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-15831-7","article-title":"Targeting zonulin and intestinal epithelial barrier function to prevent onset of arthritis","volume":"11","author":"Tajik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102674","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2021.102674","article-title":"Intestinal permeability in type 1 diabetes: An updated comprehensive overview","volume":"122","author":"Monsted","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1516","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2019-318427","article-title":"Leaky gut: Mechanisms, measurement and clinical implications in humans","volume":"68","author":"Camilleri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2018.03.006","article-title":"Age-Associated Microbial Dysbiosis Promotes Intestinal Permeability, Systemic Inflammation, and Macrophage Dysfunction","volume":"23","author":"Thevaranjan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Yu, E., and Sharma, S. (2022). StatPearls, StatPearls."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bone.2021.116233","article-title":"Impact of magnesium on bone health in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"154","author":"Groenendijk","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bone"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9882","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-66945-3","article-title":"Serum hepcidin level, iron metabolism and osteoporosis in patients with rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"10","author":"Sato","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116511","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bone.2022.116511","article-title":"Iron overload induced osteocytes apoptosis and led to bone loss in Hepcidin(-\/-) mice through increasing sclerostin and RANKL\/OPG","volume":"164","author":"Ma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bone"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"CD013529","article-title":"Interventions for treating iron deficiency anaemia in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"1","author":"Gordon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1080\/17474124.2021.1900730","article-title":"Iron deficiency anemia in IBD: An overlooked comorbidity","volume":"15","author":"Shah","year":"2021","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2449","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.8724","article-title":"Association between the gut microbiota and mineral metabolism","volume":"98","author":"Skrypnik","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1007\/s00418-018-1648-y","article-title":"Functions of vitamin D in bone","volume":"149","author":"Goltzman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Histochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00450","DOI":"10.14309\/ctg.0000000000000450","article-title":"Iron Deficiency in Inflammatory Bowel Disease Is Associated With Low Levels of Vitamin D Modulating Serum Hepcidin and Intestinal Ceruloplasmin Expression","volume":"13","author":"Stallhofer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21641","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-77806-4","article-title":"The potential role of vitamin D supplementation as a gut microbiota modifier in healthy individuals","volume":"10","author":"Singh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2315","DOI":"10.1002\/jbmr.4665","article-title":"Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Genetics of Primary Hyperparathyroidism","volume":"37","author":"Minisola","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Bone Miner. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"642","DOI":"10.20945\/2359-3997000000553","article-title":"Skeletal and nonskeletal consequences of hypoparathyroidism","volume":"66","author":"Silva","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3236828","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/3236828","article-title":"Calcitonin and Bone Physiology: In Vitro, In Vivo, and Clinical Investigations","volume":"2020","author":"Xie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12726","article-title":"Metabolites produced by commensal bacteria promote peripheral regulatory T-cell generation","volume":"504","author":"Arpaia","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12721","article-title":"Commensal microbe-derived butyrate induces the differentiation of colonic regulatory T cells","volume":"504","author":"Furusawa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1241165","article-title":"The microbial metabolites, short-chain fatty acids, regulate colonic Treg cell homeostasis","volume":"341","author":"Smith","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2018.10.013","article-title":"The Microbial Metabolite Butyrate Stimulates Bone Formation via T Regulatory Cell-Mediated Regulation of WNT10B Expression","volume":"49","author":"Tyagi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3018","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI128521","article-title":"The gut-bone axis: How bacterial metabolites bridge the distance","volume":"129","author":"Zaiss","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.15252\/embr.201744421","article-title":"Regulatory T cells are expanded by Teriparatide treatment in humans and mediate intermittent PTH-induced bone anabolism in mice","volume":"19","author":"Yu","year":"2018","journal-title":"EMBO Rep."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1210\/clinem\/dgaa895","article-title":"Role of Gut Microbiota in the Skeletal Response to PTH","volume":"106","author":"Pacifici","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"864299","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.864299","article-title":"Menopausal Transition: Prospective Study of Estrogen Status, Circulating MicroRNAs, and Biomarkers of Bone Metabolism","volume":"13","author":"Baloun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, C.H., Chen, L.R., and Chen, K.H. (2022). Osteoporosis Due to Hormone Imbalance: An Overview of the Effects of Estrogen Deficiency and Glucocorticoid Overuse on Bone Turnover. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23031376"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1011725","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2022.1011725","article-title":"Mechanisms of estrogen deficiency-induced osteoporosis based on transcriptome and DNA methylation","volume":"10","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1229","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI11066","article-title":"Estrogen deficiency induces bone loss by enhancing T-cell production of TNF-alpha","volume":"106","author":"Cenci","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.maturitas.2017.06.025","article-title":"Estrogen-gut microbiome axis: Physiological and clinical implications","volume":"103","author":"Baker","year":"2017","journal-title":"Maturitas"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e21740","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.202100451R","article-title":"Gut microbiota and bone metabolism","volume":"35","author":"Lu","year":"2021","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5747","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-06126-x","article-title":"Commensal Gut Microbiota Immunomodulatory Actions in Bone Marrow and Liver have Catabolic Effects on Skeletal Homeostasis in Health","volume":"7","author":"Novince","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uchida, Y., Irie, K., Fukuhara, D., Kataoka, K., Hattori, T., Ono, M., Ekuni, D., Kubota, S., and Morita, M. (2018). Commensal Microbiota Enhance Both Osteoclast and Osteoblast Activities. Molecules, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules23071517"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"800","DOI":"10.1080\/09637486.2022.2078285","article-title":"Short-chain fatty acids, acetate and propionate, directly upregulate osteoblastic differentiation","volume":"73","author":"Kondo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-017-02490-4","article-title":"Short-chain fatty acids regulate systemic bone mass and protect from pathological bone loss","volume":"9","author":"Lucas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4315","DOI":"10.1111\/bph.15852","article-title":"Short-chain fatty acids regulate B cells differentiation via the FFA2 receptor to alleviate rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"179","author":"Yao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110778","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2019.110778","article-title":"The multiple faces of tryptophan in bone biology","volume":"129","author":"Sharma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gruner, N., and Mattner, J. (2021). Bile Acids and Microbiota: Multifaceted and Versatile Regulators of the Liver-Gut Axis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22031397"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00810","DOI":"10.1002\/mbo3.810","article-title":"Microbial osteoporosis: The interplay between the gut microbiota and bones via host metabolism and immunity","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microbiologyopen"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00013.2014","article-title":"Physiology of proglucagon peptides: Role of glucagon and GLP-1 in health and disease","volume":"95","author":"Sandoval","year":"2015","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.M400294-JLR200","article-title":"Selective activation of vitamin D receptor by lithocholic acid acetate, a bile acid derivative","volume":"46","author":"Adachi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2015.186","article-title":"Immunopathogenesis of IBD: Current state of the art","volume":"13","author":"Fiocchi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2010.01.023","article-title":"Homeostasis and inflammation in the intestine","volume":"140","author":"Garrett","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2014.01.028","article-title":"Diagnosis and classification of ulcerative colitis","volume":"13","author":"Conrad","year":"2014","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2014.01.029","article-title":"Diagnosis and classification of Crohn\u2019s disease","volume":"13","author":"Laass","year":"2014","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10208","article-title":"Intestinal homeostasis and its breakdown in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"474","author":"Maloy","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3661","article-title":"Cytokines in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"14","author":"Neurath","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2066","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra0804647","article-title":"Inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"361","author":"Abraham","year":"2009","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2014.201","article-title":"IBD pathogenesis in 2014: Molecular pathways controlling barrier function in IBD","volume":"12","author":"Atreya","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4691","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI124884","article-title":"IFN-gamma drives inflammatory bowel disease pathogenesis through VE-cadherin-directed vascular barrier disruption","volume":"129","author":"Langer","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2007.05.006","article-title":"American gastroenterological association consensus development conference on the use of biologics in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease, June 21-23, 2006","volume":"133","author":"Clark","year":"2007","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2026","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2011.08.032","article-title":"Antibodies against tumor necrosis factor (TNF) induce T-cell apoptosis in patients with inflammatory bowel diseases via TNF receptor 2 and intestinal CD14(+) macrophages","volume":"141","author":"Atreya","year":"2011","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.3462","article-title":"In vivo imaging using fluorescent antibodies to tumor necrosis factor predicts therapeutic response in Crohn\u2019s disease","volume":"20","author":"Atreya","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0b013e32832a8a5d","article-title":"Commensal bacteria, traditional and opportunistic pathogens, dysbiosis and bacterial killing in inflammatory bowel diseases","volume":"22","author":"Packey","year":"2009","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmm.2009.08.004","article-title":"Inflammatory bowel disease, gut bacteria and probiotic therapy","volume":"300","author":"Reiff","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Microbiol. IJMM"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2007.11.059","article-title":"Microbial influences in inflammatory bowel diseases","volume":"134","author":"Sartor","year":"2008","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.12578","article-title":"Deciphering interactions between the gut microbiota and the immune system via microbial cultivation and minimal microbiomes","volume":"279","author":"Clavel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yoo, J.Y., Groer, M., Dutra, S.V.O., Sarkar, A., and McSkimming, D.I. (2020). Gut Microbiota and Immune System Interactions. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8101587"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yue, B., Luo, X., Yu, Z., Mani, S., Wang, Z., and Dou, W. (2019). Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Potential Result from the Collusion between Gut Microbiota and Mucosal Immune System. Microorganisms, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms7100440"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1259","DOI":"10.1038\/s41385-021-00420-8","article-title":"Intestinal immune compartmentalization: Implications of tissue specific determinants in health and disease","volume":"14","author":"Brown","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-030409-101330","article-title":"Intestinal bacteria and the regulation of immune cell homeostasis","volume":"28","author":"Hill","year":"2010","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8941340","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/8941340","article-title":"Protocol for Fecal Microbiota Transplantation in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"2018","author":"Fang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"CD012774","article-title":"Fecal transplantation for treatment of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"11","author":"Imdad","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stojek, M., Jablonska, A., and Adrych, K. (2021). The Role of Fecal Microbiota Transplantation in the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease. J. Clin. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10184055"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574533","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2020.574533","article-title":"Fecal Microbiota Transplantation for the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease: An Update","volume":"11","author":"Tan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1518","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2004.02.072","article-title":"From symptom to diagnosis: Clinical distinctions among various forms of intestinal inflammation","volume":"126","author":"Sands","year":"2004","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1093\/ecco-jcc\/jjv091","article-title":"Fatigue in Newly Diagnosed Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"9","author":"Grimstad","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Crohns Colitis"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1093\/ecco-jcc\/jjy191","article-title":"The Pathogenesis of Extraintestinal Manifestations: Implications for IBD Research, Diagnosis, and Therapy","volume":"13","author":"Hedin","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Crohns Colitis"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1118","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2021.07.042","article-title":"Extraintestinal Manifestations of Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Current Concepts, Treatment, and Implications for Disease Management","volume":"161","author":"Rogler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Malik, T.F., and Aurelio, D.M. (2022). StatPearls, StatPearls."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.2478\/rir-2022-0012","article-title":"Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Focus on Enteropathic Arthritis and Therapy","volume":"3","author":"Barkhodari","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rheumatol. Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e001558","DOI":"10.1136\/rmdopen-2020-001558","article-title":"The arthritis connection to inflammatory bowel disease (IBD): Why has it taken so long to understand it?","volume":"7","author":"Ashrafi","year":"2021","journal-title":"RMD Open"},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"631","article-title":"The Prevalence and Incidence of Axial and Peripheral Spondyloarthritis in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"11","author":"Karreman","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Crohns Colitis"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1097\/01.bor.0000167753.01168.bd","article-title":"Classification of the spondyloarthropathies","volume":"17","author":"Healy","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"Sen, R., Goyal, A., and Hurley, J.A. (2022). StatPearls, StatPearls."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2127","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(11)60071-8","article-title":"Spondyloarthritis","volume":"377","author":"Dougados","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ITC17","DOI":"10.7326\/AITC201708010","article-title":"Osteoporosis","volume":"167","author":"Ensrud","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pathol-011110-130203","article-title":"Disorders of bone remodeling","volume":"6","author":"Feng","year":"2011","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_103","first-page":"1017","article-title":"Osteoporosis: Pathophysiology and therapeutic options","volume":"19","author":"Dovjak","year":"2020","journal-title":"EXCLI J."},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"Varacallo, M., Seaman, T.J., Jandu, J.S., and Pizzutillo, P. (2022). StatPearls, StatPearls."},{"key":"ref_105","unstructured":"Porter, J.L., and Varacallo, M. (2022). StatPearls, StatPearls."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1593","article-title":"Skeletal remodeling in health and disease","volume":"13","author":"Zaidi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17046","DOI":"10.1038\/boneres.2017.46","article-title":"Intestinal microbiota: A potential target for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis","volume":"5","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bone Res."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535310","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.535310","article-title":"Fecal and Serum Metabolomic Signatures and Microbial Community Profiling of Postmenopausal Osteoporosis Mice Model","volume":"10","author":"Wen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10452","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm4.10452","article-title":"The Gut Microbiome Is Altered in Postmenopausal Women With Osteoporosis and Osteopenia","volume":"5","author":"Rettedal","year":"2021","journal-title":"JBMR Plus"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"930244","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.930244","article-title":"Changes in the composition of gut and vaginal microbiota in patients with postmenopausal osteoporosis","volume":"13","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1677\/joe.0.1380115","article-title":"Time-course of vertebral and femoral bone loss in rats administered gonadotrophin-releasing hormone agonist","volume":"138","author":"Kurabayashi","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1677\/joe.0.1650467","article-title":"Comparison of the effects of add-back therapy with various natural oestrogens on bone metabolism in rats administered a long-acting gonadotrophin-releasing hormone agonist","volume":"165","author":"Wang","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2049","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI86062","article-title":"Sex steroid deficiency-associated bone loss is microbiota dependent and prevented by probiotics","volume":"126","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jot.2022.08.003","article-title":"Fecal microbiota transplantation ameliorates bone loss in mice with ovariectomy-induced osteoporosis via modulating gut microbiota and metabolic function","volume":"37","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Translat."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.17219\/acem\/33746","article-title":"Osteoporosis in Gastrointestinal Diseases","volume":"25","author":"Szymczak","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Clin. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1111\/jgh.13927","article-title":"Utility of magnetic resonance elastography for predicting ascites in patients with chronic liver disease","volume":"33","author":"Abe","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1111\/hepr.13192","article-title":"Association between sarcopenia and osteoporosis in chronic liver disease","volume":"48","author":"Hayashi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hepatol. Res."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2389","DOI":"10.1007\/s00198-018-4586-6","article-title":"Risk of fracture and low bone mineral density in adults with inflammatory bowel diseases. A systematic literature review with meta-analysis","volume":"29","author":"Szafors","year":"2018","journal-title":"Osteoporos. Int."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tulewicz-Marti, E.M., Lewandowski, K., and Rydzewska, G. (2022). Bone Metabolism Alteration in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease. J. Clin. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11144138"},{"key":"ref_120","first-page":"63","article-title":"Osteoporosis in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: Risk factors, prevention, and treatment","volume":"6","author":"Katz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Rev. Gastroenterol. Disord."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.4291\/wjgp.v6.i4.210","article-title":"Risk factors for osteoporosis in inflammatory bowel disease patients","volume":"6","author":"Lima","year":"2015","journal-title":"World J. Gastrointest. Pathophysiol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.1093\/ecco-jcc\/jjaa019","article-title":"Incidence, Risk Factors and Evaluation of Osteoporosis in Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Danish Population-Based Inception Cohort With 10 Years of Follow-Up","volume":"14","author":"Lo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Crohns Colitis"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2009.01.022","article-title":"Osteoporosis in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"122","author":"Ali","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_124","first-page":"137","article-title":"Musculoskeletal manifestations in a Portuguese cohort of 235 inflammatory bowel disease patients","volume":"1","author":"Fernandes","year":"2022","journal-title":"ARP Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ctim.2019.08.023","article-title":"Vitamin D in inflammatory bowel disease: From biology to clinical implications","volume":"47","author":"Parizadeh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Complement. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1007\/s11894-019-0698-1","article-title":"Extraintestinal Manifestations of Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Epidemiology, Etiopathogenesis, and Management","volume":"21","author":"Garber","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Gastroenterol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-66653-2_7","article-title":"Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Effects on Bone and Mechanisms","volume":"1033","author":"Sylvester","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1756-185X.2010.01542.x","article-title":"The frequency of low bone mineral density and its associated risk factors in patients with inflammatory bowel diseases","volume":"13","author":"Ezzat","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.40.3.313","article-title":"Bone mineral density is reduced in patients with Crohn\u2019s disease but not in patients with ulcerative colitis: A population based study","volume":"40","author":"Jahnsen","year":"1997","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e6374","DOI":"10.1590\/1414-431x20176374","article-title":"Bone mineral density and inflammatory bowel disease severity","volume":"50","author":"Lima","year":"2017","journal-title":"Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1007\/s00431-017-2988-7","article-title":"Musculoskeletal system in children and adolescents with inflammatory bowel disease: Normal muscle force, decreased trabecular bone mineral density and low prevalence of vertebral fractures","volume":"176","author":"Maratova","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1159\/000496935","article-title":"Risk Factors for Low Bone Density in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Use of Glucocorticoids, Low Body Mass Index, and Smoking","volume":"37","author":"Mazor","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dig. Dis."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S73","DOI":"10.1093\/jcag\/gwy053","article-title":"The Impact of Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Canada 2018: Extra-intestinal Diseases in IBD","volume":"2","author":"Bernstein","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Can. Assoc. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Janssen, K.M.J., Hop, H., Vissink, A., Dijkstra, G., de Smit, M.J., Brouwer, E., and Westra, J. (2020). Levels of Anti-Citrullinated Protein Antibodies and Rheumatoid Factor, Including IgA Isotypes, and Articular Manifestations in Ulcerative Colitis and Crohn\u2019s Disease. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17218054"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1007\/s00296-022-05208-y","article-title":"Screening for spondyloarthritis in patients with inflammatory bowel diseases","volume":"43","author":"Ottaviani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rheumatol. Int."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amsu.2022.103363","article-title":"Extraintestinal manifestation of inflammatory bowel disease and associated factors in pediatric patients","volume":"75","author":"Rahmani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511799","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2020.511799","article-title":"The Effect of Inflammation on Bone","volume":"11","author":"Epsley","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1038\/s41413-022-00210-3","article-title":"Toll-like receptor 9 deficiency induces osteoclastic bone loss via gut microbiota-associated systemic chronic inflammation","volume":"10","author":"Ding","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bone Res."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1093\/ibd\/izab174","article-title":"Characterization of Skeletal Phenotype and Associated Mechanisms With Chronic Intestinal Inflammation in the Winnie Mouse Model of Spontaneous Chronic Colitis","volume":"28","author":"Sharma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1186\/s13075-022-02853-3","article-title":"Distinctive gut microbiomes of ankylosing spondylitis and inflammatory bowel disease patients suggest differing roles in pathogenesis and correlate with disease activity","volume":"24","author":"Sternes","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arthritis. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"902","DOI":"10.1093\/ibd\/izy318","article-title":"An Increased Abundance of Clostridiaceae Characterizes Arthritis in Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Cross-sectional Study","volume":"25","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-018-0603-4","article-title":"A comparative study of the gut microbiota in immune-mediated inflammatory diseases-does a common dysbiosis exist?","volume":"6","author":"Forbes","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-019-0208-2","article-title":"T lymphocytes in the intestinal mucosa: Defense and tolerance","volume":"16","author":"Ma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1038\/s41385-021-00382-x","article-title":"Intestinal CD8(+) T cell responses are abundantly induced early in human development but show impaired cytotoxic effector capacities","volume":"14","author":"Schreurs","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1038\/s41584-021-00585-3","article-title":"The gut-joint axis in rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"17","author":"Zaiss","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680073","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.680073","article-title":"Lactobacillus casei CCFM1074 Alleviates Collagen-Induced Arthritis in Rats via Balancing Treg\/Th17 and Modulating the Metabolites and Gut Microbiota","volume":"12","author":"Fan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-017-0278-2","article-title":"Aberrant intestinal microbiota due to IL-1 receptor antagonist deficiency promotes IL-17- and TLR4-dependent arthritis","volume":"5","author":"Rogier","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15613","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-15802-x","article-title":"Alteration of the intestinal microbiome characterizes preclinical inflammatory arthritis in mice and its modulation attenuates established arthritis","volume":"7","author":"Rogier","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-14148-4","article-title":"PTH induces bone loss via microbial-dependent expansion of intestinal TNF(+) T cells and Th17 cells","volume":"11","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0105-2896.2005.00327.x","article-title":"Role of RANKL in physiological and pathological bone resorption and therapeutics targeting the RANKL-RANK signaling system","volume":"208","author":"Tanaka","year":"2005","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R126","DOI":"10.1186\/ar3431","article-title":"Increasing levels of circulating Th17 cells and interleukin-17 in rheumatoid arthritis patients with an inadequate response to anti-TNF-alpha therapy","volume":"13","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1481","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI11176","article-title":"TNF-alpha induces osteoclastogenesis by direct stimulation of macrophages exposed to permissive levels of RANK ligand","volume":"106","author":"Lam","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.2353\/ajpath.2010.090998","article-title":"Vitamin D receptor negatively regulates bacterial-stimulated NF-kappaB activity in intestine","volume":"177","author":"Wu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2020.03.007","article-title":"Serum Biomarkers Identify Patients Who Will Develop Inflammatory Bowel Diseases Up to 5 Years Before Diagnosis","volume":"159","author":"Torres","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2092","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2020.08.005","article-title":"Increased Intestinal Permeability Is Associated With Later Development of Crohn\u2019s Disease","volume":"159","author":"Turpin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-020-00399-w","article-title":"The intestinal barrier, an arbitrator turned provocateur in IBD","volume":"18","author":"Mehandru","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keaa164","article-title":"Gut epithelial impairment, microbial translocation and immune system activation in inflammatory bowel disease-associated spondyloarthritis","volume":"60","author":"Luchetti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1097\/BOR.0000000000000716","article-title":"Barrier lymphocytes in spondyloarthritis","volume":"32","author":"Berlinberg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"932393","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.932393","article-title":"Cytokine competent gut-joint migratory T Cells contribute to inflammation in the joint","volume":"13","author":"Lefferts","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.181.1.137","article-title":"Dual binding capacity of mucosal immunoblasts to mucosal and synovial endothelium in humans: Dissection of the molecular mechanisms","volume":"181","author":"Salmi","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2165","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI119389","article-title":"Homing of mucosal leukocytes to joints. Distinct endothelial ligands in synovium mediate leukocyte-subtype specific adhesion","volume":"99","author":"Salmi","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4650","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.166.7.4650","article-title":"Human leukocyte subpopulations from inflamed gut bind to joint vasculature using distinct sets of adhesion molecules","volume":"166","author":"Salmi","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-01686-6","article-title":"Metabolomic and microbiome profiling reveals personalized risk factors for coronary artery disease","volume":"28","author":"Bar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1719","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.12750","article-title":"Role of gut microbiota in chronic low-grade inflammation as potential driver for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: A systematic review of human studies","volume":"19","author":"Kurilshikov","year":"2018","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_165","first-page":"60","article-title":"Intestinal microbiota composition of patients with Behcet\u2019s disease: Differences between eye, mucocutaneous and vascular involvement. The Rheuma-BIOTA study","volume":"38","author":"Kasifoglu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1366","DOI":"10.15252\/emmm.201606531","article-title":"Gut microbiota influences pathological angiogenesis in obesity-driven choroidal neovascularization","volume":"8","author":"Andriessen","year":"2016","journal-title":"EMBO Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"830","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aad0135","article-title":"A gut-vascular barrier controls the systemic dissemination of bacteria","volume":"350","author":"Spadoni","year":"2015","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e003698","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.116.003698","article-title":"Gut Microbiota Promote Angiotensin II-Induced Arterial Hypertension and Vascular Dysfunction","volume":"5","author":"Karbach","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2008.09.064","article-title":"VEGF-A links angiogenesis and inflammation in inflammatory bowel disease pathogenesis","volume":"136","author":"Scaldaferri","year":"2009","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_170","first-page":"970890","article-title":"Angiogenesis in Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"2015","author":"Alkim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Inflam."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.2174\/1389203716666150224150756","article-title":"Angiogenesis-related proteins--their role in the pathogenesis and treatment of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"16","author":"Eder","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Protein Pept. Sci."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1847","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.15939","article-title":"Microbiota Introduced to Germ-Free Rats Restores Vascular Contractility and Blood Pressure","volume":"76","author":"Joe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-021-01165-z","article-title":"Intestinal microbiota shapes gut physiology and regulates enteric neurons and glia","volume":"9","author":"Vicentini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"910","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2017.05.011","article-title":"The Enteric Network: Interactions between the Immune and Nervous Systems of the Gut","volume":"46","author":"Yoo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-020-0271-2","article-title":"Enteric nervous system: Sensory transduction, neural circuits and gastrointestinal motility","volume":"17","author":"Spencer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2012.138","article-title":"Novel functional roles for enteric glia in the gastrointestinal tract","volume":"9","author":"Gulbransen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-018-0051-4","article-title":"Neuroimmunophysiology of the gut: Advances and emerging concepts focusing on the epithelium","volume":"15","author":"Sharkey","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2012.32","article-title":"The enteric nervous system and neurogastroenterology","volume":"9","author":"Furness","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1002\/art.27287","article-title":"Angiogenesis and blood vessel stability in inflammatory arthritis","volume":"62","author":"Kennedy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2646","DOI":"10.1002\/art.39783","article-title":"Dysbiosis Contributes to Arthritis Development via Activation of Autoreactive T Cells in the Intestine","volume":"68","author":"Maeda","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panfili, E., Gerli, R., Grohmann, U., and Pallotta, M.T. (2020). Amino Acid Metabolism in Rheumatoid Arthritis: Friend or Foe?. Biomolecules, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom10091280"},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1007\/s11306-017-1311-y","article-title":"Alterations in Lipid, Amino Acid, and Energy Metabolism Distinguish Crohn\u2019s Disease from Ulcerative Colitis and Control Subjects by Serum Metabolomic Profiling","volume":"14","author":"Scoville","year":"2018","journal-title":"Metabolomics"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1847","DOI":"10.1097\/MIB.0000000000000790","article-title":"L-Arginine Availability and Metabolism Is Altered in Ulcerative Colitis","volume":"22","author":"Coburn","year":"2016","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G1323","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.00499.2006","article-title":"Increased arginase activity and endothelial dysfunction in human inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"292","author":"Horowitz","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, J.Y., Guo, Y.C., Zhou, H.F., Yue, T.T., Wang, F.X., Sun, F., and Wang, W.Z. (2022). Arginine metabolism regulates the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease. Nutr. Rev., nuac070.","DOI":"10.1093\/nutrit\/nuac070"},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5703","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI126923","article-title":"Arginase impedes the resolution of colitis by altering the microbiome and metabolome","volume":"130","author":"Baier","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coburn, L.A., Gong, X., Singh, K., Asim, M., Scull, B.P., Allaman, M.M., Williams, C.S., Rosen, M.J., Washington, M.K., and Barry, D.P. (2012). L-arginine supplementation improves responses to injury and inflammation in dextran sulfate sodium colitis. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0033546"},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1177\/0148607115581374","article-title":"Pretreatment and Treatment with L-Arginine Attenuate Weight Loss and Bacterial Translocation in Dextran Sulfate Sodium Colitis","volume":"40","author":"Andrade","year":"2016","journal-title":"JPEN J. Parenter. Enter. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2019.00066","article-title":"Dietary Arginine Regulates Severity of Experimental Colitis and Affects the Colonic Microbiome","volume":"9","author":"Singh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1962","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2018.04.053","article-title":"Induction of Nitric-Oxide Metabolism in Enterocytes Alleviates Colitis and Inflammation-Associated Colon Cancer","volume":"23","author":"Stettner","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.3892\/or.2016.5221","article-title":"Silencing of argininosuccinate lyase inhibits colorectal cancer formation","volume":"37","author":"Huang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931431","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.931431","article-title":"The change of plasma metabolic profile and gut microbiome dysbiosis in patients with rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"13","author":"Zhu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-14285-1","article-title":"Environmental arginine controls multinuclear giant cell metabolism and formation","volume":"11","author":"Brunner","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2669","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI96832","article-title":"Transcription factor Fra-1 targets arginase-1 to enhance macrophage-mediated inflammation in arthritis","volume":"129","author":"Hannemann","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-nutr-071816-064732","article-title":"Trimethylamine N-Oxide, the Microbiome, and Heart and Kidney Disease","volume":"37","author":"Zeisel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1365","DOI":"10.2337\/dc19-0134","article-title":"Circulating Gut Microbiota Metabolite Trimethylamine N-Oxide (TMAO) and Changes in Bone Density in Response to Weight Loss Diets: The POUNDS Lost Trial","volume":"42","author":"Zhou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2021.110331","article-title":"The influence of gut microbiome on bone health and related dietary strategies against bone dysfunctions","volume":"144","author":"Peng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1570","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2020.12.031","article-title":"STRIDE-II: An Update on the Selecting Therapeutic Targets in Inflammatory Bowel Disease (STRIDE) Initiative of the International Organization for the Study of IBD (IOIBD): Determining Therapeutic Goals for Treat-to-Target strategies in IBD","volume":"160","author":"Turner","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1093\/ecco-jcc\/jjz180","article-title":"ECCO Guidelines on Therapeutics in Crohn\u2019s Disease: Medical Treatment","volume":"14","author":"Torres","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Crohns Colitis"},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11821","DOI":"10.21037\/apm-21-2996","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of probiotics in the induction and maintenance of inflammatory bowel disease remission: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"10","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Palliat. Med."},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2020.09.038","article-title":"Fecal Microbiota Transplantation Is Highly Effective in Real-World Practice: Initial Results From the FMT National Registry","volume":"160","author":"Kelly","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1563","DOI":"10.1177\/15353702211006044","article-title":"Treatment and mechanism of fecal microbiota transplantation in mice with experimentally induced ulcerative colitis","volume":"246","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2020.1854640","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of fecal microbiota transplantation for the treatment of diseases other than Clostridium difficile infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"12","author":"Green","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1007\/s11914-011-0077-9","article-title":"Bone, inflammation, and inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"9","author":"Agrawal","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Osteoporos. Rep."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/24\/6\/5161\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:50:36Z","timestamp":1760122236000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/24\/6\/5161"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,8]]},"references-count":204,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms24065161"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms24065161","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,8]]}}}