{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,18]],"date-time":"2026-10-18T02:39:04Z","timestamp":1792291144590,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":233,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,9]],"date-time":"2023-03-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1678320000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004686","name":"King Faisal University, Employees Scholarship Program from the Saudi Arabian Government","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1026374049"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1026374049"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004686","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can become a chronic and severely disabling condition resulting in a reduced quality of life and increased economic burden. The disorder is directly related to exposure to a traumatic event, e.g., a real or threatened injury, death, or sexual assault. Extensive research has been done on the neurobiological alterations underlying the disorder and its related phenotypes, revealing brain circuit disruption, neurotransmitter dysregulation, and hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction. Psychotherapy remains the first-line treatment option for PTSD given its good efficacy, although pharmacotherapy can also be used as a stand-alone or in combination with psychotherapy. In order to reduce the prevalence and burden of the disorder, multilevel models of prevention have been developed to detect the disorder as early as possible and to reduce morbidity in those with established diseases. Despite the clinical grounds of diagnosis, attention is increasing to the discovery of reliable biomarkers that can predict susceptibility, aid diagnosis, or monitor treatment. Several potential biomarkers have been linked with pathophysiological changes related to PTSD, encouraging further research to identify actionable targets. This review highlights the current literature regarding the pathophysiology, disease development models, treatment modalities, and preventive models from a public health perspective, and discusses the current state of biomarker research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24065238","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,9]],"date-time":"2023-03-09T03:03:23Z","timestamp":1678331003000},"page":"5238","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":119,"title":["To Predict, Prevent, and Manage Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): A Review of Pathophysiology, Treatment, and Biomarkers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Ghazi I.","family":"Al Jowf","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience (MHeNs), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Centre, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Public Health, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"European Graduate School of Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6737-0194","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ziyad T.","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, Sulaiman Al Rajhi University, Al-Bukairyah 52726, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7599-0385","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rick A.","family":"Reijnders","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience (MHeNs), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Centre, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands"},{"name":"European Graduate School of Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laurence","family":"de Nijs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience (MHeNs), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Centre, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands"},{"name":"European Graduate School of Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6473-2839","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lars M. 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