{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]],"date-time":"2026-07-13T18:28:33Z","timestamp":1783967313395,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,12]],"date-time":"2023-03-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1678579200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["31970127"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31970127"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Epsilon toxin (ETX), produced by type B and D strains of Clostridium perfringens, can cause fatal enterotoxaemia in ruminant animals, particularly sheep, cattle, and goats. Previous studies show that the cytotoxicity of ETX is dependent on the integrity of lipid rafts, the maintenance of which is ensured by cholesterol. Zaragozic acid (ZA) is a statin drug that reduces the synthesis of squalene, which is responsible for cholesterol synthesis. In this study, ZA significantly reduced the toxicity of ETX in Madin\u2013Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. We show that ZA does not affect the binding of ETX to MDCK cells, but propidium iodide staining (PI) and Western blotting confirmed that ZA significantly disrupts the ability of ETX to form pores or oligomers in MDCK cells. Additionally, ZA decreased the phosphatidylserine exposure on the plasma membrane and increased the Ca2+ influx of the cells. Results of density gradient centrifugation suggest that ZA decreased the number of lipid rafts in MDCK membranes, which probably contributed to the attenuation of pore-formation. Moreover, ZA protected mice against ETX in vivo. All mice pre-treated with ZA for 48 h before exposure to an absolute lethal dose of ETX (6400 ng\/kg) survived. In summary, these findings provide an innovative method to prevent ETX intoxication. Considering many pore-forming toxins require lipid rafts, we tested and found ZA also inhibited the toxicity of other toxins such as Clostridium perfringens Net B and \u03b2-toxin (CPB) and Staphylococcus aureus \u03b1-hemolysin (Hla). We expect ZA can thus be developed as a broad-spectrum medicine for the treatment of multiple toxins. In addition, other statins, such as lovastatin (LO), also reduced the toxicity of ETX. These findings indicate that statin medicines are potential candidates for preventing and treating multiple toxin-induced diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24065414","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,13]],"date-time":"2023-03-13T05:36:21Z","timestamp":1678685781000},"page":"5414","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Statins as Potential Preventative Treatment of ETX and Multiple Pore-Forming Toxin-Induced Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Jing","family":"Huang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Life Science Institute, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang 050024, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Baohua","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Life Science Institute, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang 050024, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tingting","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lin","family":"Kang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiaxin","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zishuo","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ming","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shan","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jing","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yanwei","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jinglin","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5468-2084","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wenwen","family":"Xin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uzal, F.A., Giannitti, F., Finnie, J.W., and Garcia, J. 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