{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,19]],"date-time":"2026-07-19T03:37:52Z","timestamp":1784432272319,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":153,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,24]],"date-time":"2023-03-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1679616000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Immunochemotherapy has become popular in recent years. The detailed mechanisms of cancer immunity are being elucidated, and new developments are expected in the future. Apoptosis allows tissues to maintain their form, quantity, and function by eliminating excess or abnormal cells. When apoptosis is inhibited, the balance between cell division and death is disrupted and tissue homeostasis is impaired. This leads to dysfunction and the accumulation of genetically abnormal cells, which can contribute to carcinogenesis. Lectins are neither enzymes nor antibodies but proteins that bind sugar chains. Among soluble endogenous lectins, galectins interact with cell surface sugar chains outside the cell to regulate signal transduction and cell growth. On the other hand, intracellular lectins are present at the plasma membrane and regulate signal transduction by regulating receptor\u2013ligand interactions. Galectin-9 expressed on the surface of thymocytes induces apoptosis of T lymphocytes and plays an essential role in immune self-tolerance by negative selection in the thymus. Furthermore, the administration of extracellular galectin-9 induces apoptosis of human cancer and immunodeficient cells. However, the detailed pharmacokinetics of galectin-9 in vivo have not been elucidated. In addition, the cell surface receptors involved in galectin-9-induced apoptosis of cancer cells have not been identified, and the intracellular pathways involved in apoptosis have not been fully investigated. We have previously reported that galectin-9 induces apoptosis in various gastrointestinal cancers and suppresses tumor growth. However, the mechanism of galectin-9 and apoptosis induction in gastrointestinal cancers and the detailed mechanisms involved in tumor growth inhibition remain unknown. In this article, we review the effects of galectin-9 on gastrointestinal cancers and its mechanisms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24076174","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,27]],"date-time":"2023-03-27T03:31:48Z","timestamp":1679887908000},"page":"6174","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Galectin-9 in Gastroenterological Cancer"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0760-3045","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Asahiro","family":"Morishita","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Kagawa University Faculty of Medicine, Miki 761-0793, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9531-7240","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kyoko","family":"Oura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Kagawa University Faculty of Medicine, Miki 761-0793, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9975-386X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tomoko","family":"Tadokoro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Kagawa University Faculty of Medicine, Miki 761-0793, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9852-6961","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tingting","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Kagawa University Faculty of Medicine, Miki 761-0793, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Koji","family":"Fujita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Kagawa University Faculty of Medicine, Miki 761-0793, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8801-2505","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joji","family":"Tani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Kagawa University Faculty of Medicine, Miki 761-0793, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3374-7111","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Masanori","family":"Atsukawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Nippon Medical University Hospital, Tokyo 113-8603, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tsutomu","family":"Masaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Kagawa University Faculty of Medicine, Miki 761-0793, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1038\/bjc.1972.33","article-title":"Apoptosis: A basic biological phenomenon with wide-ranging implications in tissue kinetics","volume":"26","author":"Kerr","year":"1972","journal-title":"Br. 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