{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,12]],"date-time":"2026-10-12T15:39:38Z","timestamp":1791819578275,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":83,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,1]],"date-time":"2023-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1680307200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Science, Technological Development and Innovation of the Republic of Serbia","award":["451-03-47\/2023-01\/200178"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["451-03-47\/2023-01\/200178"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>After being discovered over a century ago, insulin was long considered to be a hormone exclusively produced by the pancreas. Insulin presence was later discovered in the brain, which was originally accounted for by its transport across the blood-brain barrier. Considering that both insulin mRNA and insulin were detected in the central nervous system (CNS), it is now known that this hormone is also synthesized in several brain regions, including the hypothalamus, hippocampus, cerebral and cerebellar cortex, and olfactory bulb. Although many roles of insulin in the CNS have been described, it was initially unknown which of them could be attributed to brain-derived and which to pancreatic insulin or whether their actions in the brain overlap. However, more and more studies have been emerging lately, focusing solely on the roles of brain-derived insulin. The aim of this review was to present the latest findings on the roles of brain-derived insulin, including neuroprotection, control of growth hormone secretion, and regulation of appetite and neuronal glucose uptake. Lastly, the impairment of signaling initiated by brain-derived insulin was addressed in regard to memory decline in humans.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24076586","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,3]],"date-time":"2023-04-03T03:08:31Z","timestamp":1680491311000},"page":"6586","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":41,"title":["The Expression of Insulin in the Central Nervous System: What Have We Learned So Far?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7238-2728","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tamara","family":"Dakic","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Comparative Physiology and Ecophysiology, Institute for Physiology and Biochemistry Ivan Djaja, Faculty of Biology, University of Belgrade, Studentski Trg 16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6047-9365","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tanja","family":"Jevdjovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Comparative Physiology and Ecophysiology, Institute for Physiology and Biochemistry Ivan Djaja, Faculty of Biology, University of Belgrade, Studentski Trg 16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8894-7300","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Iva","family":"Lakic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Comparative Physiology and Ecophysiology, Institute for Physiology and Biochemistry Ivan Djaja, Faculty of Biology, University of Belgrade, Studentski Trg 16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0590-8248","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aleksandra","family":"Ruzicic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Comparative Physiology and Ecophysiology, Institute for Physiology and Biochemistry Ivan Djaja, Faculty of Biology, University of Belgrade, Studentski Trg 16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0333-333X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nebojsa","family":"Jasnic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Comparative Physiology and Ecophysiology, Institute for Physiology and Biochemistry Ivan Djaja, Faculty of Biology, University of Belgrade, Studentski Trg 16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4406-8376","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sinisa","family":"Djurasevic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Comparative Physiology and Ecophysiology, Institute for Physiology and Biochemistry Ivan Djaja, Faculty of Biology, University of Belgrade, Studentski Trg 16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jelena","family":"Djordjevic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Comparative Physiology and Ecophysiology, Institute for Physiology and Biochemistry Ivan Djaja, Faculty of Biology, University of Belgrade, Studentski Trg 16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9444-4758","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Predrag","family":"Vujovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Comparative Physiology and Ecophysiology, Institute for Physiology and Biochemistry Ivan Djaja, Faculty of Biology, University of Belgrade, Studentski Trg 16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, J., Lushchak, O.V., Goergen, P., Williams, M.J., and N\u00e4ssel, D.R. 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