{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,31]],"date-time":"2026-07-31T20:04:22Z","timestamp":1785528262421,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":152,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,6]],"date-time":"2023-05-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1683331200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>What triggers type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM)? One common assumption is that triggers are individual microbes that mimic autoantibody targets such as insulin (INS). However, most microbes highly associated with T1DM pathogenesis, such as coxsackieviruses (COX), lack INS mimicry and have failed to induce T1DM in animal models. Using proteomic similarity search techniques, we found that COX actually mimicked the INS receptor (INSR). Clostridia were the best mimics of INS. Clostridia antibodies cross-reacted with INS in ELISA experiments, confirming mimicry. COX antibodies cross-reacted with INSR. Clostridia antibodies further bound to COX antibodies as idiotype\u2013anti-idiotype pairs conserving INS\u2013INSR complementarity. Ultraviolet spectrometry studies demonstrated that INS-like Clostridia peptides bound to INSR-like COX peptides. These complementary peptides were also recognized as antigens by T cell receptor sequences derived from T1DM patients. Finally, most sera from T1DM patients bound strongly to inactivated Clostridium sporogenes, while most sera from healthy individuals did not; T1DM sera also exhibited evidence of anti-idiotype antibodies against idiotypic INS, glutamic acid decarboxylase, and protein tyrosine phosphatase non-receptor (islet antigen-2) antibodies. These results suggest that T1DM is triggered by combined enterovirus-Clostridium (and possibly combined Epstein\u2013Barr-virus-Streptococcal) infections, and the probable rate of such co-infections approximates the rate of new T1DM diagnoses.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24098336","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,8]],"date-time":"2023-05-08T03:34:53Z","timestamp":1683516893000},"page":"8336","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Clostridia and Enteroviruses as Synergistic Triggers of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3298-9306","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robert","family":"Root-Bernstein","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kaylie","family":"Chiles","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jack","family":"Huber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alison","family":"Ziehl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3091-2356","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miah","family":"Turke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maja","family":"Pietrowicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513210","DOI":"10.1155\/2011\/513210","article-title":"T cell recognition of autoantigens in human type 1 diabetes: Clinical perspectives","volume":"2011","author":"Mallone","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. 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