{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,12]],"date-time":"2026-10-12T20:43:14Z","timestamp":1791837794621,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,11]],"date-time":"2023-05-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1683763200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia due to inadequate insulin secretion, resistance, or both. The cardiovascular complications of DM are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in diabetic patients. There are three major types of pathophysiologic cardiac remodeling including coronary artery atherosclerosis, cardiac autonomic neuropathy, and DM cardiomyopathy in patients with DM. DM cardiomyopathy is a distinct cardiomyopathy characterized by myocardial dysfunction in the absence of coronary artery disease, hypertension, and valvular heart disease. Cardiac fibrosis, defined as the excessive deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, is a hallmark of DM cardiomyopathy. The pathophysiology of cardiac fibrosis in DM cardiomyopathy is complex and involves multiple cellular and molecular mechanisms. Cardiac fibrosis contributes to the development of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), which increases mortality and the incidence of hospitalizations. As medical technology advances, the severity of cardiac fibrosis in DM cardiomyopathy can be evaluated by non-invasive imaging modalities such as echocardiography, heart computed tomography (CT), cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and nuclear imaging. In this review article, we will discuss the pathophysiology of cardiac fibrosis in DM cardiomyopathy, non-invasive imaging modalities to evaluate the severity of cardiac fibrosis, and therapeutic strategies for DM cardiomyopathy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24108604","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,12]],"date-time":"2023-05-12T02:36:59Z","timestamp":1683859019000},"page":"8604","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":76,"title":["The Role of Cardiac Fibrosis in Diabetic Cardiomyopathy: From Pathophysiology to Clinical Diagnostic Tools"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5418-9724","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kuo-Li","family":"Pan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chiayi Branch, Chiayi City 613, Taiwan"},{"name":"College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan City 333, Taiwan"},{"name":"Heart Failure Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chiayi Branch, Chiayi City 613, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yung-Chien","family":"Hsu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nephrology, Kidney and Diabetic Complications Research Team (KDCRT), Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chiayi Branch, Chiayi City 613, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shih-Tai","family":"Chang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chiayi Branch, Chiayi City 613, Taiwan"},{"name":"College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan City 333, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chang-Min","family":"Chung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chiayi Branch, Chiayi City 613, Taiwan"},{"name":"College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan City 333, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chun-Liang","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan City 333, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Nephrology, Kidney and Diabetic Complications Research Team (KDCRT), Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chiayi Branch, Chiayi City 613, Taiwan"},{"name":"Kidney Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taipei 105, Taiwan"},{"name":"Center for Shockwave Medicine and Tissue Engineering, Department of Medical Research, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung City 833, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1800256","article-title":"Risk Factors, Mortality, and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"379","author":"Rawshani","year":"2018","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e67","DOI":"10.1161\/CIR.0000000000000558","article-title":"Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2019 Update: A Report from the American Heart Association","volume":"137","author":"Benjamin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1879","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.27.8.1879","article-title":"The incidence of congestive heart failure in type 2 diabetes: An update","volume":"27","author":"Nichols","year":"2004","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3213","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.679597","article-title":"Diabetic cardiomyopathy revisited","volume":"115","author":"Boudina","year":"2007","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2009.12.003","article-title":"The development of heart failure in patients with diabetes mellitus and pre-clinical diastolic dysfunction a population-based study","volume":"55","author":"From","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.24.1.5","article-title":"Diastolic dysfunction in normotensive men with well-controlled type 2 diabetes: Importance of maneuvers in echocardiographic screening for preclinical diabetic cardiomyopathy","volume":"24","author":"Poirier","year":"2001","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1720","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-5491.2005.01685.x","article-title":"Early detection of diabetic cardiomyopathy: Usefulness of tissue Doppler imaging","volume":"22","author":"Moio","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1548","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2006.07.033","article-title":"Diastolic dysfunction and diabetic cardiomyopathy: Evaluation by Doppler echocardiography","volume":"48","author":"Galderisi","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mam.2018.07.001","article-title":"Cardiac fibrosis: Cell biological mechanisms, molecular pathways and therapeutic opportunities","volume":"65","author":"Frangogiannis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Asp. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1016\/S0008-6363(96)88507-5","article-title":"Molecular signalling mechanisms controlling growth and function of cardiac fibroblasts","volume":"30","author":"Booz","year":"1995","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1450","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvaa324","article-title":"Cardiac fibrosis","volume":"117","author":"Frangogiannis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H934","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00238.2018","article-title":"Characterization of a mouse model of obesity-related fibrotic cardiomyopathy that recapitulates features of human heart failure with preserved ejection fraction","volume":"315","author":"Alex","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2010","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-1755.2003.00016.x","article-title":"Role of TGF-beta signaling in extracellular matrix production under high glucose conditions","volume":"63","author":"Li","year":"2003","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"860","DOI":"10.4239\/wjd.v5.i6.860","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of AGE\/RAGE-mediated fibrosis in the diabetic heart","volume":"5","author":"Zhao","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yjmcc.2015.12.011","article-title":"Diabetes-associated cardiac fibrosis: Cellular effectors, molecular mechanisms and therapeutic opportunities","volume":"90","author":"Russo","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trsl.2014.05.001","article-title":"Obesity, metabolic dysfunction, and cardiac fibrosis: Pathophysiological pathways, molecular mechanisms, and therapeutic opportunities","volume":"164","author":"Cavalera","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.1002\/ejhf.1167","article-title":"Derangements in adrenergic-adipokine signalling establish a neurohormonal basis for obesity-related heart failure with a preserved ejection fraction","volume":"20","author":"Packer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI108843","article-title":"Evidence for cardiomyopathy in familial diabetes mellitus","volume":"60","author":"Regan","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H1675","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.91493.2007","article-title":"Activation of the intracellular renin-angiotensin system in cardiac fibroblasts by high glucose: Role in extracellular matrix production","volume":"294","author":"Singh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"1586","article-title":"Hyperglycemic glucose concentrations up-regulate the expression of type VI collagen in vitro. Relevance to alterations of peripheral nerves in diabetes mellitus","volume":"142","author":"Muona","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.2337\/diab.40.5.605","article-title":"Increased matrix gene expression by glucose in rat neural connective tissue cells in culture","volume":"40","author":"Muona","year":"1991","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1186\/s12933-018-0750-8","article-title":"Glycemic control by the SGLT2 inhibitor empagliflozin decreases aortic stiffness, renal resistivity index and kidney injury","volume":"17","author":"Aroor","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Q., Wang, J., Wang, P., Wang, L., Jia, L., Ling, X., Xi, W., Min, J., Shen, H., and Xiao, J. (2019). Glycemic control is associated with atrial structural remodeling in patients with type 2 diabetes. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord., 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12872-019-1249-2"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/s12933-017-0651-2","article-title":"Increased myocardial extracellular volume assessed by cardiovascular magnetic resonance T1 mapping and its determinants in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients with normal myocardial systolic strain","volume":"17","author":"Cao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1111\/nep.12335","article-title":"Tight blood glycaemic and blood pressure control in experimental diabetic nephropathy reduces extracellular matrix production without regression of fibrosis","volume":"19","author":"Conway","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nephrology"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.3109\/08977194.2011.595714","article-title":"TGF-\u03b2 signaling in fibrosis","volume":"29","author":"Biernacka","year":"2011","journal-title":"Growth Factors"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.2337\/db06-1163","article-title":"Contributions of inflammation and cardiac matrix metalloproteinase activity to cardiac failure in diabetic cardiomyopathy: The role of angiotensin type 1 receptor antagonism","volume":"56","author":"Westermann","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI117004","article-title":"Stimulation of collagen gene expression and protein synthesis in murine mesangial cells by high glucose is mediated by autocrine activation of transforming growth factor-beta","volume":"93","author":"Ziyadeh","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1136\/hrt.2003.022707","article-title":"Reduced cardiac expression of plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 and transforming growth factor beta1 in obese Zucker rats by perindopril","volume":"91","author":"Toblli","year":"2005","journal-title":"Heart"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1007\/s00424-012-1165-0","article-title":"Advanced glycation end products promote proliferation of cardiac fibroblasts by upregulation of KCa3.1 channels","volume":"464","author":"Zhao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pflug. Arch."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1853","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI11951","article-title":"Advanced glycation end products cause epithelial-myofibroblast transdifferentiation via the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE)","volume":"108","author":"Oldfield","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.964","article-title":"Leptin and endothelin-1 mediated increased extracellular matrix protein production and cardiomyocyte hypertrophy in diabetic heart disease","volume":"25","author":"Majumdar","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cardiores.2006.10.009","article-title":"Adiponectin actions in the cardiovascular system","volume":"74","author":"Hopkins","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.107.156687","article-title":"Adiponectin protects against angiotensin II-induced cardiac fibrosis through activation of PPAR-alpha","volume":"28","author":"Fujita","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2407","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.938217","article-title":"Endothelial cell-derived endothelin-1 promotes cardiac fibrosis in diabetic hearts through stimulation of endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition","volume":"121","author":"Widyantoro","year":"2010","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00017.2007","article-title":"Cardiac remodeling in obesity","volume":"88","author":"Abel","year":"2008","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2007-0877","article-title":"Oxidative stress triggers cardiac fibrosis in the heart of diabetic rats","volume":"149","author":"Aragno","year":"2008","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2758","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612828666220902115437","article-title":"Epigallocatechin Gallate Protects Diabetes Mellitus Rats Complicated with Cardiomyopathy through TGF-\u03b21\/JNK Signaling Pathway","volume":"28","author":"Gui","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, W., Wu, J., Cai, F., Xiang, J., Zha, W., Fan, D., Guo, S., Ming, Z., and Liu, C. (2012). Curcumin alleviates diabetic cardiomyopathy in experimental diabetic rats. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0052013"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, C., Lu, X.Z., Shen, M.Z., Xing, C.Y., Ma, J., Duan, Y.Y., and Yuan, L.J. (2015). N-Acetyl Cysteine improves the diabetic cardiac function: Possible role of fibrosis inhibition. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12872-015-0076-3"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112043","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2022.112043","article-title":"The effects of resveratrol and melatonin on biochemical and molecular parameters in diabetic old female rat hearts","volume":"172","author":"Ozyildirim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Exp. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1216","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1176009","article-title":"The extracellular matrix: Not just pretty fibrils","volume":"326","author":"Hynes","year":"2009","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Titus, A.S., Ushakumary, M.G., Venugopal, H., Wang, M., Lakatta, E.G., and Kailasam, S. (2022). Metformin Attenuates Hyperglycaemia-Stimulated Pro-Fibrotic Gene Expression in Adventitial Fibroblasts via Inhibition of Discoidin Domain Receptor 2. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.1101\/2022.10.24.513528"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02766802","article-title":"A comparison of ultrastructural changes on endomyocardial biopsy specimens obtained from patients with diabetes mellitus with and without hypertension","volume":"12","author":"Kawaguchi","year":"1997","journal-title":"Heart Vessel."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/S0735-1097(97)00144-7","article-title":"Evaluation of diastolic filling of left ventricle in health and disease: Doppler echocardiography is the clinician\u2019s Rosetta Stone","volume":"30","author":"Nishimura","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2007.09.061","article-title":"Unlocking the mysteries of diastolic function: Deciphering the Rosetta Stone 10 years later","volume":"51","author":"Lester","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1321","DOI":"10.1093\/ehjci\/jew082","article-title":"Recommendations for the Evaluation of Left Ventricular Diastolic Function by Echocardiography: An Update from the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging","volume":"17","author":"Nagueh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.661983","article-title":"Utility of Doppler echocardiography and tissue Doppler imaging in the estimation of diastolic function in heart failure with normal ejection fraction: A comparative Doppler-conductance catheterization study","volume":"116","author":"Kasner","year":"2007","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1636","DOI":"10.1016\/S0735-1097(02)02373-2","article-title":"Left ventricular diastolic dysfunction as a predictor of the first diagnosed nonvalvular atrial fibrillation in 840 elderly men and women","volume":"40","author":"Tsang","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2006.08.050","article-title":"Cardiovascular features of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction versus nonfailing hypertensive left ventricular hypertrophy in the urban Baltimore community: The role of atrial remodeling\/dysfunction","volume":"49","author":"Melenovsky","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rimbas, R.C., Visoiu, I.S., Magda, S.L., Mihaila-Baldea, S., Luchian, M.L., Chitroceanu, A.M., Hayat, M., Mihalcea, D.J., Dragoi-Galrinho-Antunes-Guerra, R., and Stefan, M. (2022). New insights into the potential utility of the left atrial function analysis in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction diagnosis. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0267962"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1093\/ehjci\/jev014","article-title":"Recommendations for cardiac chamber quantification by echocardiography in adults: An update from the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging","volume":"16","author":"Lang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrad.2022.110274","article-title":"Detection of left ventricular dysfunction on axial non-contrast chest CT","volume":"150","author":"Kaiume","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjcard.2022.07.017","article-title":"Comparison Between Echocardiography and Cardiac Computed Tomography in the Evaluation of Diastolic Dysfunction and Prediction of Heart Failure","volume":"181","author":"Lessick","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/0895-7061(94)00178-E","article-title":"Magnetic resonance imaging compared to echocardiography to assess left ventricular mass in the hypertensive patient","volume":"8","author":"Bottini","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am. J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1161\/hy0302.104674","article-title":"Assessment of left ventricular mass by cardiovascular magnetic resonance","volume":"39","author":"Myerson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1310","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.28018","article-title":"Sector-wise golden-angle phase contrast with high temporal resolution for evaluation of left ventricular diastolic dysfunction","volume":"83","author":"Fyrdahl","year":"2020","journal-title":"Magn. Reason. Med."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2004.12.051","article-title":"Feasibility of tissue magnetic resonance imaging: A pilot study in comparison with tissue Doppler imaging and invasive measurement","volume":"45","author":"Paelinck","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1007\/s00392-014-0669-3","article-title":"Classification of diastolic function with phase-contrast cardiac magnetic resonance imaging: Validation with echocardiography and age-related reference values","volume":"103","author":"Buss","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Res. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2004.09.054","article-title":"Diastolic dysfunction and left atrial volume: A population-based study","volume":"45","author":"Pritchett","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21331","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-00596-w","article-title":"Comparing left atrial indices by CMR in association with left ventricular diastolic dysfunction and adverse clinical outcomes","volume":"11","author":"Nguyen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3270617","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/3270617","article-title":"Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy Is an Independent Risk Factor for Left Ventricular Diastolic Dysfunction in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"2017","author":"Jin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5607208","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/5607208","article-title":"A Comparative Assessment of Cardiovascular Autonomic Reflex Testing and Cardiac 123I-Metaiodobenzylguanidine Imaging in Patients with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus without Complications or Cardiovascular Risk Factors","volume":"2018","author":"Didangelos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/eht193","article-title":"Myocardial extracellular volume fraction quantified by cardiovascular magnetic resonance is increased in diabetes and associated with mortality and incident heart failure admission","volume":"35","author":"Wong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2674","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2012.09.031","article-title":"Risk factors for sudden cardiac death in post-menopausal women","volume":"60","author":"Bertoia","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2668","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.103.22.2668","article-title":"Glycemic control and heart failure among adult patients with diabetes","volume":"103","author":"Iribarren","year":"2001","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2197","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1414266","article-title":"Follow-up of glycemic control and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes","volume":"372","author":"Hayward","year":"2015","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"938","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ahj.2011.07.030","article-title":"Intensive glycemic control has no impact on the risk of heart failure in type 2 diabetic patients: Evidence from a 37,229 patient meta-analysis","volume":"162","author":"Castagno","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjcard.2014.07.045","article-title":"Impact of intensive glycemic control on the incidence of atrial fibrillation and associated cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (from the Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes Study)","volume":"114","author":"Fatemi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.109.877340","article-title":"Impact of diastolic dysfunction on the development of heart failure in diabetic patients after acute myocardial infarction","volume":"3","author":"Aronson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Circ. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"6043","article-title":"Attenuation of myocardial fibrosis with curcumin is mediated by modulating expression of angiotensin II AT1\/AT2 receptors and ACE2 in rats","volume":"9","author":"Pang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Drug Des. Devel. Ther."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1161\/01.RES.0000065620.39919.20","article-title":"A breaker of advanced glycation end products attenuates diabetes-induced myocardial structural changes","volume":"92","author":"Candido","year":"2003","journal-title":"Circ. Res."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/24\/10\/8604\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:33:02Z","timestamp":1760124782000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/24\/10\/8604"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,11]]},"references-count":72,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms24108604"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms24108604","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,11]]}}}