{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T12:08:56Z","timestamp":1790424536869,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":142,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,17]],"date-time":"2023-05-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1684281600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>To meet the increased need for food and energy because of the economic shift brought about by the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, there has been an increase in persistent organic pollutants (POPs), atmospheric emissions and metals in the environment. Several studies have reported a relationship between these pollutants and obesity, and diabetes (type 1, type 2 and gestational). All of the major pollutants are considered to be endocrine disruptors because of their interactions with various transcription factors, receptors and tissues that result in alterations of metabolic function. POPs impact adipogenesis, thereby increasing the prevalence of obesity in exposed individuals. Metals impact glucose regulation by disrupting pancreatic \u03b2-cells, causing hyperglycemia and impaired insulin signaling. Additionally, a positive association has been observed between the concentration of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in the 12 weeks prior to conception and fasting glucose levels. Here, we evaluate what is currently known regarding the link between environmental pollutants and metabolic disorders. In addition, we indicate where further research is required to improve our understanding of the specific effects of pollutants on these metabolic disorders which would enable implementation of changes to enable their prevention.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24108870","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,17]],"date-time":"2023-05-17T02:04:05Z","timestamp":1684289045000},"page":"8870","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":97,"title":["Environmental Pollution and the Risk of Developing Metabolic Disorders: Obesity and Diabetes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"William Junior","family":"Khalil","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland Bahrain, Busaiteen 15503, Bahrain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meriem","family":"Akeblersane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland Bahrain, Busaiteen 15503, Bahrain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ana Saad","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland Bahrain, Busaiteen 15503, Bahrain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abu Saleh Md","family":"Moin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Department, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland Bahrain, Busaiteen 15503, Bahrain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexandra E.","family":"Butler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Department, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland Bahrain, Busaiteen 15503, Bahrain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2022, September 17). Metabolic Disorders: Types, Causes, and Symptoms. Available online: https:\/\/www.medicalnewstoday.com\/articles\/metabolic-disorders."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2022, September 17). Common Metabolic Diseases. National Institutes of Health (NIH), Available online: https:\/\/www.nih.gov\/research-training\/accelerating-medicines-partnership-amp\/common-metabolic-diseases."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2022, September 15). Obesity and Overweight. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/obesity-and-overweight."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2022, September 17). CDC Obesity is a Common, Serious, and Costly Disease. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/obesity\/data\/adult.html."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"79","article-title":"Obesity in Gulf Countries","volume":"8","author":"ALNohair","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"(2023, April 21). Over Half of Adults in the EU Are Overweight. Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/eurostat\/web\/products-eurostat-news\/-\/ddn-20210721-2."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2023, April 21). IDF Diabetes Atlas | Tenth Edition. Available online: https:\/\/diabetesatlas.org\/."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2022, September 15). Diabetes Symptoms, Causes, & Treatment | ADA. Available online: https:\/\/diabetes.org\/diabetes."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706978","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2021.706978","article-title":"Obesity: Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Therapeutics","volume":"12","author":"Lin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-53480-4.00015-1","article-title":"Chapter 15\u2014General aspects of diabetes mellitus","volume":"Volume 126","author":"Zochodne","year":"2014","journal-title":"Handbook of Clinical Neurology"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.2337\/diabetes.52.1.102","article-title":"Beta-cell deficit and increased beta-cell apoptosis in humans with type 2 diabetes","volume":"52","author":"Butler","year":"2003","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"(2022, September 17). Increasing Environmental Pollution (GMT 10)\u2014European Environment Agency. Available online: https:\/\/www.eea.europa.eu\/soer\/2015\/global\/pollution."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2016.08.005","article-title":"Role of food processing in food and nutrition security","volume":"56","author":"Augustin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ehb.2014.04.002","article-title":"Macronutrients and obesity: Revisiting the calories in, calories out framework","volume":"14","author":"Tefft","year":"2014","journal-title":"Econ. Hum. Biol."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"(2022, September 15). The exposome and health: Where chemistry meets biology | Science. Available online: https:\/\/www.science.org\/doi\/abs\/10.1126\/science.aay3164."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)11274-8","article-title":"Air pollution and health","volume":"360","author":"Brunekreef","year":"2002","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2009-0002","article-title":"Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals: An Endocrine Society Scientific Statement","volume":"30","author":"Bourguignon","year":"2009","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"(2022, September 10). Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs). Available online: https:\/\/www.endocrine.org\/patient-engagement\/endocrine-library\/edcs."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.2147\/IJGM.S102230","article-title":"Overview of air pollution and endocrine disorders","volume":"11","author":"Darbre","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Gen. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Combarnous, Y., and Nguyen, T.M.D. (2019). Comparative Overview of the Mechanisms of Action of Hormones and Endocrine Disruptor Compounds. Toxics, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics7010005"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a016709","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a016709","article-title":"Signaling by Nuclear Receptors","volume":"5","author":"Sever","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2023, February 01). Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals\u2014UpToDate. Available online: https:\/\/www.uptodate.com\/contents\/endocrine-disrupting-chemicals?search=EDCs%20and%20reproduction&source=search_result&selectedTitle=1~150&usage_type=default&display_rank=1."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(2023, February 02). Occupational and Environmental Risks to Reproduction in Females: Specific Exposures and Impact\u2014UpToDate. Available online: https:\/\/www.uptodate.com\/contents\/occupational-and-environmental-risks-to-reproduction-in-females-specific-exposures-and-impact?search=EDCs%20and%20reproduction&topicRef=113968&source=see_link#H2180005789."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2022, September 08). Ambient (Outdoor) Air Pollution. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2023, February 04). Particulate Matter Overview. Utah Department of Environmental Quality, Available online: https:\/\/deq.utah.gov\/air-quality\/particulate-matter-overview."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1186\/s13148-022-01301-y","article-title":"DNA methylation: A potential mediator between air pollution and metabolic syndrome","volume":"14","author":"Poursafa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Epigenetics"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Idowu, S.O., Capaldi, N., Zu, L., and Gupta, A.D. (2013). Encyclopedia of Corporate Social Responsibility, Springer. Available online: http:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/978-3-642-28036-8_101506.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-28036-8"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1007\/s11892-017-0966-0","article-title":"Persistent Organic Pollutants as Risk Factors for Obesity and Diabetes","volume":"17","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Diab. Rep."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.01.027","article-title":"Persistent organic pollutants and gestational diabetes: A multi-center prospective cohort study of healthy US women","volume":"124","author":"Rahman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2022, September 10). The 12 Initial POPs. Available online: http:\/\/www.pops.int\/TheConvention\/ThePOPs\/The12InitialPOPs\/tabid\/296\/Default.aspx."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2023, February 04). Listing of POPs in the Stockholm Convention. Available online: http:\/\/chm.pops.int\/TheConvention\/ThePOPs\/AllPOPs\/tabid\/2509\/Default.aspx."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Wexler, P. (2014). Encyclopedia of Toxicology, Academic Press. [3rd ed.]. Available online: https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/B9780123864543002116."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2022, August 29). Overview. Available online: http:\/\/www.pops.int\/TheConvention\/Overview\/tabid\/3351\/Default.aspx."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"47","article-title":"PCBs: Structure\u2013function relationships and mechanism of action","volume":"60","author":"Safe","year":"1985","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aaseth, J., Javorac, D., Djordjevic, A., Bulat, Z., Skalny, A., Zaitseva, I., Aschner, M., and Tinkov, A. (2022). The Role of Persistent Organic Pollutants in Obesity: A Review of Laboratory and Epidemiological Studies. Toxics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics10020065"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2265","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph8062265","article-title":"Effect of Endocrine Disruptor Pesticides: A Review","volume":"8","author":"Mnif","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.02110125","article-title":"Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT): Ubiquity, persistence, and risks","volume":"110","author":"Turusov","year":"2002","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2022, September 18). Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Factsheet | National Biomonitoring Program | CDC, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/biomonitoring\/PAHs_FactSheet.html."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1962","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2013-1370","article-title":"Bisphenol A: A Model Endocrine Disrupting Chemical With a New Potential Mechanism of Action","volume":"154","author":"Nagel","year":"2013","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2022, September 15). Plastics, EDCs & Health: Authoritative Guide. Available online: https:\/\/www.endocrine.org\/topics\/edc\/plastics-edcs-and-health."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuro.2007.08.007","article-title":"Developmental neurotoxicity of polybrominated diphenyl ether (pbde) flame retardants","volume":"28","author":"Costa","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coph.2014.09.018","article-title":"Exposures, Mechanisms, and Impacts of Endocrine-Active Flame Retardants","volume":"19","author":"Dishaw","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A368","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.114-a368b","article-title":"PCBs Are Endocrine Disruptors: Mixture Affects Reproductive Development in Female Mice","volume":"114","author":"McGovern","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coph.2014.09.020","article-title":"Endocrine-disrupting actions of PCBs on brain development and social and reproductive behaviors","volume":"19","author":"Bell","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1039\/C0EM00400F","article-title":"Relationship of polychlorinated biphenyls with type 2 diabetes and hypertension","volume":"13","author":"Everett","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Environ. Monit. JEM"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2022, September 09). Chemical Safety: Pesticides. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/questions-and-answers\/item\/chemical-safety-pesticides."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(2022, September 09). Fallon Nevada: FAQs: Organophosphates | CDC HSB, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nceh\/clusters\/fallon\/organophosfaq.htm."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2016.02.013","article-title":"Exposure to pesticides and diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"91","author":"Evangelou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7561","DOI":"10.1007\/s13197-015-1851-y","article-title":"Advanced glycation End-products (AGEs): An emerging concern for processed food industries","volume":"52","author":"Sharma","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2017-00882","article-title":"Immune System: An Emerging Player in Mediating Effects of Endocrine Disruptors on Metabolic Health","volume":"159","author":"Bansal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., and Qian, H. (2021). Phthalates and Their Impacts on Human Health. Healthcare, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare9050603"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-016-0136-x","article-title":"The association between phthalates and metabolic syndrome: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001\u20132010","volume":"15","author":"Huang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"928","DOI":"10.1124\/dmd.119.086538","article-title":"Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers and Gut Microbiome Modulate Metabolic Syndrome\u2013Related Aqueous Metabolites in Mice","volume":"47","author":"Scoville","year":"2019","journal-title":"Drug Metab. Dispos."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"(2022, September 14). Arsenic Toxicity: What Is the Biologic Fate of Arsenic in the Body? | Environmental Medicine | ATSDR, Available online: https:\/\/www.atsdr.cdc.gov\/csem\/arsenic\/biologic_fate.html."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"(2022, September 14). Arsenic Toxicity: Where Is Arsenic Found? | Environmental Medicine | ATSDR, Available online: https:\/\/www.atsdr.cdc.gov\/csem\/arsenic\/where_arsenic.html."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.300.7.814","article-title":"Arsenic Exposure and Prevalence of Type 2 Diabetes in US Adults","volume":"300","author":"Silbergeld","year":"2008","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"(2022, September 14). Arsenic Toxicity: What are the Physiologic Effects of Arsenic Exposure? | Environmental Medicine | ATSDR, Available online: https:\/\/www.atsdr.cdc.gov\/csem\/arsenic\/physiologic_effects.html."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Alonso-Magdalena, P., Tudur\u00ed, E., Marroqu\u00ed, L., Quesada, I., Sargis, R.M., and Nadal, A. (2019). Encyclopedia of Endocrine Diseases, Elsevier. Available online: https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/B9780128012383643258."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1363","DOI":"10.1007\/s40618-021-01502-x","article-title":"The endocrine disruptor cadmium: A new player in the pathophysiology of metabolic diseases","volume":"44","author":"Bimonte","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol. Investig."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.3345\/cep.2020.00010","article-title":"Air pollution and childhood obesity","volume":"63","author":"Seo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2518","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.110.215350","article-title":"Effect of Early Particulate Air Pollution Exposure on Obesity in Mice","volume":"30","author":"Xu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"21","article-title":"Advanced glycation end products and risk of general and abdominal obesity in Iranian adults: Tehran lipid and glucose study","volume":"33","author":"Mirmiran","year":"2019","journal-title":"Med. J. Islam. Repub. Iran"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jada.2010.03.018","article-title":"Advanced glycation end products in foods and a practical guide to their reduction in the diet","volume":"110","author":"Uribarri","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Diet. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1007\/s001250051591","article-title":"Advanced glycation end-products: A review","volume":"44","author":"Singh","year":"2001","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.621854","article-title":"Advanced Glycation End Products","volume":"114","author":"Goldin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1111\/cen.13270","article-title":"Urinary bisphenol A is associated with insulin resistance and obesity in reproductive-aged women","volume":"86","author":"Hong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1038\/ijo.2012.173","article-title":"The environmental obesogen bisphenol A promotes adipogenesis by increasing the amount of 11\u03b2-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 in the adipose tissue of children","volume":"37","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2018.07.172","article-title":"Association of urinary concentrations of phthalate metabolites with cardiometabolic risk factors and obesity in children and adolescents","volume":"211","author":"Amin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1124","DOI":"10.1002\/jor.23740","article-title":"Plasticizer di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate interferes with osteoblastogenesis and adipogenesis in a mouse model","volume":"36","author":"Chiu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Res. Off. Publ. Orthop. Res. Soc."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfg145","article-title":"Activation of PPARalpha and PPARgamma by environmental phthalate monoesters","volume":"74","author":"Hurst","year":"2003","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci. Off. J. Soc. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"1096","article-title":"Persistent organic pollutants and risk of diabetes and obesity on healthy adults: Results from a cross-sectional study in Spain","volume":"607\u2013608","author":"Luzardo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1007\/s13273-018-0041-1","article-title":"Trends in gene expression changes during adipogenesis in human adipose derived mesenchymal stem cells under dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene exposure","volume":"14","author":"Pesta","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1802","DOI":"10.2337\/dc08-0850","article-title":"Association of brominated flame retardants with diabetes and metabolic syndrome in the U.S. population, 2003\u20132004","volume":"31","author":"Lim","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2018.06.108","article-title":"Association of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in two fat compartments with increased risk of insulin resistance in obese individuals","volume":"209","author":"Helaleh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1312","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.07.087","article-title":"The brominated flame retardant BDE 47 upregulates purine metabolism and mitochondrial respiration to promote adipocyte differentiation","volume":"644","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Inoue, K., Goto, A., Sugiyama, T., Ramlau-Hansen, C.H., and Liew, Z. (2020). The Confounder-Mediator Dilemma: Should We Control for Obesity to Estimate the Effect of Perfluoroalkyl Substances on Health Outcomes?. Toxics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics8040125"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1841","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-007-0755-4","article-title":"Relationship between serum concentrations of persistent organic pollutants and the prevalence of metabolic syndrome among non-diabetic adults: Results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999\u20132002","volume":"50","author":"Lee","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1307234","article-title":"Urinary polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and childhood obesity: NHANES (2001\u20132006)","volume":"122","author":"Scinicariello","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1111\/ijpo.12106","article-title":"Prenatal and early life exposure to traffic pollution and cardiometabolic health in childhood","volume":"12","author":"Fleisch","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatr. Obes."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0000000000000203","article-title":"Prenatal exposure to traffic pollution: Associations with reduced fetal growth and rapid infant weight gain","volume":"26","author":"Fleisch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Camb. Mass"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2018.00771","article-title":"Prenatal Exposure to Traffic Pollution and Childhood Body Mass Index Trajectory","volume":"9","author":"Fleisch","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"746","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-012-1059-y","article-title":"Maternal smoking, breastfeeding, and risk of childhood overweight: Findings from a national cohort","volume":"17","author":"Wen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Matern. Child Health J."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1136\/jech.2008.077917","article-title":"Millennium Cohort Study Child Health Group An ecological systems approach to examining risk factors for early childhood overweight: Findings from the UK Millennium Cohort Study","volume":"63","author":"Hawkins","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol. Community Health"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108595","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2019.108595","article-title":"Prenatal exposure to airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and childhood growth trajectories from age 5-14 years","volume":"177","author":"Rundle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1163","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwr455","article-title":"Association of childhood obesity with maternal exposure to ambient air polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during pregnancy","volume":"175","author":"Rundle","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-069X-13-49","article-title":"Traffic-related air pollution and obesity formation in children: A longitudinal, multilevel analysis","volume":"13","author":"Jerrett","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2018.00712","article-title":"Persistent Organic Pollutants and Type 2 Diabetes: A Critical Review of Review Articles","volume":"9","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_88","first-page":"220","article-title":"Environmental pollution and diabetes mellitus","volume":"9","author":"Helal","year":"2021","journal-title":"World J. Meta-Anal."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6894","DOI":"10.1038\/srep06894","article-title":"Arsenic induces diabetic effects through beta-cell dysfunction and increased gluconeogenesis in mice","volume":"4","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3497","DOI":"10.1007\/s10620-021-07203-y","article-title":"Environmental Toxicants and NAFLD: A Neglected yet Significant Relationship","volume":"67","author":"Rajak","year":"2022","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28375","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-022-18513-7","article-title":"In vitro toxic interaction of arsenic and hyperglycemia in mitochondria: An important implication of increased vulnerability in pre-diabetics","volume":"29","author":"Kalo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Vol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100965","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mam.2021.100965","article-title":"Impact of the exposome on the development and function of pancreatic \u03b2-cells","volume":"87","author":"Hill","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. Aspects Med."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110802","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2020.110802","article-title":"Assessment of arsenic-induced modifications in the DNA methylation of insulin-related genes in rat pancreatic islets","volume":"201","author":"Khan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"WHO (2019). Preventing Disease Through Healthy Environments. Exposure to Cadmium: A Major Public Health Concern, WHO. Available online: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/bitstream\/handle\/10665\/329480\/WHO-CED-PHE-EPE-19.4.3-eng.pdf."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2007.03.021","article-title":"Aberrant DNA methylation and gene expression in livers of newborn mice transplacentally exposed to a hepatocarcinogenic dose of inorganic arsenic","volume":"236","author":"Xie","year":"2007","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2018.05.099","article-title":"Impact of chronic and low cadmium exposure of rats: Sex specific disruption of glucose metabolism","volume":"207","author":"Jacquet","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106406","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2021.106406","article-title":"Cadmium exposure impairs pancreatic \u03b2-cell function and exaggerates diabetes by disrupting lipid metabolism","volume":"149","author":"Hong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buha, A., \u0110uki\u0107-\u0106osi\u0107, D., \u0106ur\u010di\u0107, M., Bulat, Z., Antonijevi\u0107, B., Moulis, J.-M., Goumenou, M., and Wallace, D. (2020). Emerging Links between Cadmium Exposure and Insulin Resistance: Human, Animal, and Cell Study Data. Toxics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics8030063"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Little, B.B., Reilly, R., Walsh, B., and Vu, G.T. (2020). Cadmium Is Associated with Type 2 Diabetes in a Superfund Site Lead Smelter Community in Dallas, Texas. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17124558"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-9861(03)00120-6","article-title":"Cadmium induces impaired glucose tolerance in rat by down-regulating GLUT4 expression in adipocytes","volume":"413","author":"Han","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.4161\/isl.1.3.9262","article-title":"Heavy metals, islet function and diabetes development","volume":"1","author":"Chen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Islets"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.05.224","article-title":"The role of cadmium in obesity and diabetes","volume":"601\u2013602","author":"Tinkov","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"Nie, X., Wang, N., Chen, Y., Chen, C., Han, B., Zhu, C., Chen, Y., Xia, F., Cang, Z., and Lu, M. (2022, September 20). Blood cadmium in Chinese adults and its relationships with diabetes and obesity | SpringerLink. Available online: https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11356-016-7078-2."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrestox.5b00237","article-title":"Subchronic Exposure of Mice to Cadmium Perturbs Their Hepatic Energy Metabolism and Gut Microbiome","volume":"28","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chem. Res. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abb.2015.07.010","article-title":"Chronic cadmium exposure in rats produces pancreatic impairment and insulin resistance in multiple peripheral tissues","volume":"583","author":"Waalkes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.799015","article-title":"Ambient Air Pollution Exaggerates Adipose Inflammation and Insulin Resistance in a Mouse Model of Diet-Induced Obesity","volume":"119","author":"Sun","year":"2009","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcjd.2013.05.001","article-title":"Understanding Type 1 Diabetes: Etiology and Models","volume":"37","author":"Acharjee","year":"2013","journal-title":"Can. J. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2011.04.001","article-title":"The recent rise in the frequency of Type 1 Diabetes: Who pulled the trigger?","volume":"37","author":"Hasham","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1273","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.0901689","article-title":"Traffic-related air pollution and incident type 2 diabetes: Results from the SALIA cohort study","volume":"118","author":"Herder","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2008.06.022","article-title":"Lifestyle and environmental factors associated with inflammation, oxidative stress and insulin resistance in children","volume":"203","author":"Kelishadi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2020.129103","article-title":"Selective beta-cell toxicity of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin on isolated pancreatic islets","volume":"265","author":"Novelli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.4239\/wjd.v12.i5.673","article-title":"Relationships between emissions of toxic airborne molecules and type 1 diabetes incidence in children: An ecologic study","volume":"12","author":"Portincasa","year":"2021","journal-title":"World J. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1399-5448.2002.30403.x","article-title":"Role of exposure to air pollutants in the development of type 1 diabetes before and after 5 yr of age","volume":"3","author":"Hathout","year":"2002","journal-title":"Pediatr. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2022.107175","article-title":"Associations between persistent organic pollutants and type 1 diabetes in youth","volume":"163","author":"Bresson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.4274\/jcrpe.2812","article-title":"Environmental Contaminants and Pancreatic Beta-Cells","volume":"8","author":"Fabricio","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Res. Pediatr. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E527","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00233.2011","article-title":"Developmental exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate impairs endocrine pancreas and leads to long-term adverse effects on glucose homeostasis in the rat","volume":"301","author":"Lin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-09-1053","article-title":"Beta-cell development and turnover during prenatal life in humans","volume":"162","author":"Meier","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1584","DOI":"10.2337\/db07-1369","article-title":"Beta-cell replication is the primary mechanism subserving the postnatal expansion of beta-cell mass in humans","volume":"57","author":"Meier","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/s43042-020-00054-8","article-title":"Update on the genetic and epigenetic etiology of gestational diabetes mellitus: A review","volume":"21","author":"Yahaya","year":"2020","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Med. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_120","unstructured":"(2022, August 25). Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM). Available online: https:\/\/www.hopkinsmedicine.org\/health\/conditions-and-diseases\/diabetes\/gestational-diabetes."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2167","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-010-1809-6","article-title":"Adaptive changes in pancreatic beta cell fractional area and beta cell turnover in human pregnancy","volume":"53","author":"Butler","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2014.12.020","article-title":"Preconception and early pregnancy air pollution exposures and risk of gestational diabetes Mellitus","volume":"137","author":"Robledo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Plows, J.F., Stanley, J.L., Baker, P.N., Reynolds, C.M., and Vickers, M.H. (2018). The Pathophysiology of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19113342"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138982","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.138982","article-title":"Increased risk of gestational diabetes mellitus in women with higher prepregnancy ambient PM2.5 exposure","volume":"730","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641361","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2021.641361","article-title":"Association of Complement-Related Proteins in Subjects With and Without Second Trimester Gestational Diabetes","volume":"12","author":"Ramanjaneya","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e001925","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjdrc-2020-001925","article-title":"apoA2 correlates to gestational age with decreased apolipoproteins A2, C1, C3 and E in gestational diabetes","volume":"9","author":"Ramanjaneya","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Open Diabetes Res. Care"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.137349","article-title":"Ambient air pollution and gestational diabetes mellitus: A review of evidence from biological mechanisms to population epidemiology","volume":"719","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lawrence, R.L., Wall, C.R., and Bloomfield, F.H. (2019). Prevalence of gestational diabetes according to commonly used data sources: An observational study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-019-2521-2"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121-OR","DOI":"10.2337\/db18-121-OR","article-title":"Prevalence and Trends in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus among Women in the United States, 2006\u20132016","volume":"67","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1111\/jdi.12854","article-title":"Prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus in mainland China: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"10","author":"Gao","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Investig."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668447","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2021.668447","article-title":"Prevalence of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in the Middle East and North Africa, 2000\u20132019: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Meta-Regression","volume":"12","author":"Abdo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691033","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2021.691033","article-title":"Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Europe: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Prevalence Studies","volume":"12","author":"Paulo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1007\/s11892-015-0699-x","article-title":"Prevalence of Gestational Diabetes and Risk of Progression to Type 2 Diabetes: A Global Perspective","volume":"16","author":"Zhu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Diab. Rep."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwv256","article-title":"Air Pollution Exposure During Pregnancy and Fetal Markers of Metabolic function","volume":"183","author":"Lavigne","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2016.01.040","article-title":"Exposure to organophosphorus and organochlorine pesticides, perfluoroalkyl substances, and polychlorinated biphenyls in pregnancy and the association with impaired glucose tolerance and gestational diabetes mellitus: The MIREC Study","volume":"147","author":"Shapiro","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2016.09.002","article-title":"Association between serum concentrations of persistent organic pollutants and gestational diabetes mellitus in primiparous women","volume":"151","author":"Eslami","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2016.10.005","article-title":"Persistent organic pollutants in early pregnancy and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"98","author":"Vafeiadi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_138","unstructured":"Shmerling, R.H. (2023, April 25). Metabolic Syndrome is on the Rise: What It Is and Why It Matters. Harvard Health. Available online: https:\/\/www.health.harvard.edu\/blog\/metabolic-syndrome-is-on-the-rise-what-it-is-and-why-it-matters-2020071720621."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E24","DOI":"10.5888\/pcd14.160287","article-title":"Metabolic Syndrome Prevalence by Race\/Ethnicity and Sex in the United States, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988\u20132012","volume":"14","author":"Moore","year":"2017","journal-title":"Prev. Chronic. Dis."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ranasinghe, P., Mathangasinghe, Y., Jayawardena, R., Hills, A.P., and Misra, A. (2017). Prevalence and trends of metabolic syndrome among adults in the asia-pacific region: A systematic review. BMC Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-017-4041-1"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mrfmmm.2013.02.003","article-title":"Factors affecting the 27K DNA methylation pattern in asthmatic and healthy children from locations with various environments","volume":"741\u2013742","author":"Rossnerova","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mutat. Res."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2018.07.041","article-title":"Short-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution and genome-wide DNA methylation: A randomized, double-blind, crossover trial","volume":"120","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Int."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/24\/10\/8870\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:36:29Z","timestamp":1760124989000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/24\/10\/8870"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,17]]},"references-count":142,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms24108870"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms24108870","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,17]]}}}