{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,17]],"date-time":"2026-10-17T21:50:35Z","timestamp":1792273835419,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":209,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,6]],"date-time":"2023-06-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1686009600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Autophagy dysregulation is commonplace in the pathogenesis of several invalidating diseases, such as musculoskeletal diseases. Polyamines, as spermidine and spermine, are small aliphatic cations essential for cell growth and differentiation, with multiple antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic effects. Remarkably, they are emerging as natural autophagy regulators with strong anti-aging effects. Polyamine levels were significantly altered in the skeletal muscles of aged animals. Therefore, supplementation of spermine and spermidine may be important to prevent or treat muscle atrophy. Recent in vitro and in vivo experimental studies indicate that spermidine reverses dysfunctional autophagy and stimulates mitophagy in muscles and heart, preventing senescence. Physical exercise, as polyamines, regulates skeletal muscle mass inducing proper autophagy and mitophagy. This narrative review focuses on the latest evidence regarding the efficacy of polyamines and exercise as autophagy inducers, alone or coupled, in alleviating sarcopenia and aging-dependent musculoskeletal diseases. A comprehensive description of overall autophagic steps in muscle, polyamine metabolic pathways, and effects of the role of autophagy inducers played by both polyamines and exercise has been presented. Although literature shows few data in regard to this controversial topic, interesting effects on muscle atrophy in murine models have emerged when the two \u201cautophagy-inducers\u201d were combined. We hope these findings, with caution, can encourage researchers to continue investigating in this direction. In particular, if these novel insights could be confirmed in further in vivo and clinical studies, and the two synergic treatments could be optimized in terms of dose and duration, then polyamine supplementation and physical exercise might have a clinical potential in sarcopenia, and more importantly, implications for a healthy lifestyle in the elderly population.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24129798","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,6]],"date-time":"2023-06-06T02:57:30Z","timestamp":1686020250000},"page":"9798","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Polyamines and Physical Activity in Musculoskeletal Diseases: A Potential Therapeutic Challenge"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5344-4014","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Letizia","family":"Galasso","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4527-4203","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Annalisa","family":"Cappella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"U.O. Laboratorio di Morfologia Umana Applicata, I.R.C.C.S. Policlinico San Donato, San Donato Milanese, 20097 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2324-6375","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonino","family":"Mul\u00e8","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7701-9733","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lucia","family":"Castelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0448-6223","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Ciorciari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6767-6617","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandra","family":"Stacchiotti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"U.O. Laboratorio di Morfologia Umana Applicata, I.R.C.C.S. Policlinico San Donato, San Donato Milanese, 20097 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angela","family":"Montaruli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"I.R.C.C.S. Ospedale Galeazzi-Sant\u2019Ambrogio, 20157 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jamda.2016.04.019","article-title":"Skeletal Muscle Regulates Metabolism via Interorgan Crosstalk: Roles in Health and Disease","volume":"17","author":"Campos","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Dir. 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