{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T19:26:43Z","timestamp":1793388403819,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":91,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,8]],"date-time":"2023-06-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1686182400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin","id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01v1rak05","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin","id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01v1rak05","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Neuroinflammation is one of the postulated mechanisms for Pb neurotoxicity. However, the exact molecular mechanisms responsible for its pro-inflammatory effect are not fully elucidated. In this study, we examined the role of glial cells in neuroinflammation induced by Pb exposure. We investigated how microglia, a type of glial cell, responded to the changes caused by perinatal exposure to Pb by measuring the expression of Iba1 at the mRNA and protein levels. To assess the state of microglia, we analyzed the mRNA levels of specific markers associated with the cytotoxic M1 phenotype (Il1b, Il6, and Tnfa) and the cytoprotective M2 phenotype (Arg1, Chi3l1, Mrc1, Fcgr1a, Sphk1, and Tgfb1). Additionally, we measured the concentration of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1\u03b2, IL-6, and TNF-\u03b1). To assess the reactivity and functionality status of astrocytes, we analyzed the GFAP (mRNA expression and protein concentration) as well as glutamine synthase (GS) protein level and activity. Using an electron microscope, we assessed ultrastructural abnormalities in the examined brain structures (forebrain cortex, cerebellum, and hippocampus). In addition, we measured the mRNA levels of Cxcl1 and Cxcl2, and their receptor, Cxcr2. Our data showed that perinatal exposure to Pb at low doses affected both microglia and astrocyte cells\u2019 status (their mobilization, activation, function, and changes in gene expression profile) in a brain-structure-specific manner. The results suggest that both microglia and astrocytes represent a potential target for Pb neurotoxicity, thus being key mediators of neuroinflammation and further neuropathology evoked by Pb poisoning during perinatal brain development.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24129903","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,9]],"date-time":"2023-06-09T02:59:57Z","timestamp":1686279597000},"page":"9903","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":78,"title":["Microglia and Astroglia\u2014The Potential Role in Neuroinflammation Induced by Pre- and Neonatal Exposure to Lead (Pb)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9777-1378","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Magdalena","family":"G\u0105ssowska-Dobrowolska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cellular Signalling, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawi\u0144skiego 5, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4301-6195","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miko\u0142aj","family":"Chlubek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Powsta\u0144c\u00f3w Wlkp. 72, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6933-7643","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agnieszka","family":"Kolasa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Histology and Embryology, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Powsta\u0144c\u00f3w Wlkp. 72, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patrycja","family":"Tomasiak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology in Health Sciences, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, \u017bo\u0142nierska 54, 70-210 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1642-1259","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jan","family":"Korbecki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Powsta\u0144c\u00f3w Wlkp. 72, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Anatomy and Histology, Collegium Medicum, University of Zielona G\u00f3ra, Zyty 28 St., 65-046 Zielona G\u00f3ra, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2612-3186","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katarzyna","family":"Skowro\u0144ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Powsta\u0144c\u00f3w Wlkp. 72, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3869-5077","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maciej","family":"Tarnowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology in Health Sciences, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, \u017bo\u0142nierska 54, 70-210 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9479-0212","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Masztalewicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Unii Lubelskiej 1, 71-252 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9187-8895","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Irena","family":"Baranowska-Bosiacka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Powsta\u0144c\u00f3w Wlkp. 72, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1186\/2047-9158-3-9","article-title":"Role of early life exposure and environment on neurodegeneration: Implications on brain disorders","volume":"3","author":"Modgil","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transl. 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