{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,31]],"date-time":"2026-07-31T22:30:25Z","timestamp":1785537025120,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":91,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,9]],"date-time":"2023-06-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1686268800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health","award":["R21 AI152832"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R21 AI152832"]}]},{"name":"National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health","award":["R03 AI165170"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R03 AI165170"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sulfur mustard (SM) is a highly toxic chemical agent that causes severe tissue damage, particularly to the eyes, lungs, and skin. Despite advances in treatment, there is a need for more effective therapies for SM-induced tissue injury. Stem cell and exosome therapies are emerging as promising approaches for tissue repair and regeneration. Stem cells can differentiate into multiple cell types and promote tissue regeneration, while exosomes are small vesicles that can deliver therapeutic cargo to target cells. Several preclinical studies demonstrated the potential of stem cell, exosome, or combination therapy for various tissue injury, showing improvements in tissue repairing, inflammation, and fibrosis. However, there are also challenges associated with these therapies, such as the requirement for standardized methods for exosome isolation and characterization, the long-term safety and efficacy and reduced SM-induced tissue injury of these therapies. Stem cell or exosome therapy was used for SM-induced eye and lung injury. Despite the limited data on the use for SM-induced skin injury, this therapy is a promising area of research and may offer new treatment options in the future. In this review, we focused on optimizing these therapies, evaluating their safety and efficacy, and comparing their efficacy to other emerging therapeutic approaches potentially for SM-induced tissue injury in the eye, lung, and skin.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24129947","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,9]],"date-time":"2023-06-09T09:54:32Z","timestamp":1686304472000},"page":"9947","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Therapeutic Benefits of Stem Cells and Exosomes for Sulfur-Mustard-Induced Tissue Damage"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Carol Christine","family":"Bosholm","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hainan","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pengfei","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kun","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, 2464 Charlotte Street, Kansas City, MO 64108, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2820-2451","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sean Vincent","family":"Murphy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5703-4565","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrick Michael","family":"McNutt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuanyuan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2022.109156","article-title":"Supporting discovery and development of medical countermeasures for chemical injury to eye and skin","volume":"221","author":"Araj","year":"2022","journal-title":"Exp. 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