{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T23:31:25Z","timestamp":1789428685061,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,1]],"date-time":"2023-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1688169600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Fondazione Alessandro and Vincenzo Negroni Prati Morosini and Fondazione Romeo and Enrica Invernizzi"},{"name":"PNRR-Spoke 13-CUP-G43C2200260007-INF-ACT"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The oral mucosa is the first site of SARS-CoV-2 entry and replication, and it plays a central role in the early defense against infection. Thus, the SARS-CoV-2 viral load, miRNAs, cytokines, and neutralizing activity (NA) were assessed in saliva and plasma from mild (MD) and severe (SD) COVID-19 patients. Here we showed that of the 84 miRNAs analyzed, 8 were differently expressed in the plasma and saliva of SD patients. In particular: (1) miRNAs let-7a-5p, let-7b-5p, and let-7c-5p were significantly downregulated; and (2) miR-23a and b and miR-29c, as well as three immunomodulatory miRNAs (miR-34a-5p, miR-181d-5p, and miR-146) were significantly upregulated. The production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1\u03b2, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, IL-9, and TNF\u03b1) and chemokines (CCL2 and RANTES) increased in both the saliva and plasma of SD and MD patients. Notably, disease severity correlated with NA and immune activation. Monitoring these parameters could help predict disease outcomes and identify new markers of disease progression.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241310992","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,3]],"date-time":"2023-07-03T00:34:08Z","timestamp":1688344448000},"page":"10992","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Salivary miRNA Profiles in COVID-19 Patients with Different Disease Severities"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8600-2503","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Irma","family":"Saulle","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Via Francesco Sforza, 20122 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, University of Milan, Via G.B. Grassi, 20122 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Micaela","family":"Garziano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Via Francesco Sforza, 20122 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, University of Milan, Via G.B. Grassi, 20122 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2932-2391","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gioia","family":"Cappelletti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, University of Milan, Via G.B. Grassi, 20122 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0185-2099","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fiona","family":"Limanaqi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Via Francesco Sforza, 20122 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, University of Milan, Via G.B. Grassi, 20122 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sergio","family":"Strizzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, University of Milan, Via G.B. Grassi, 20122 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4490-6675","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudia","family":"Vanetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, University of Milan, Via G.B. Grassi, 20122 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sergio","family":"Lo Caputo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Infectious Diseases, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, 71122 Foggia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9896-489X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mariacristina","family":"Poliseno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Infectious Diseases, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, 71122 Foggia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4342-6904","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Teresa Antonia","family":"Santantonio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Infectious Diseases, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, 71122 Foggia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5920-6191","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mario","family":"Clerici","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Via Francesco Sforza, 20122 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Don C. Gnocchi Foundation, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Foundation, Via A. Capecelatro 66, 20148 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3671-4235","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mara","family":"Biasin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, University of Milan, Via G.B. Grassi, 20122 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2001017","article-title":"A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019","volume":"382","author":"Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. 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