{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T13:53:54Z","timestamp":1791899634071,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":128,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,6]],"date-time":"2023-08-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1691280000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"RAI Services Company"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Lung fibrosis is a progressive fatal disease in which deregulated wound healing of lung epithelial cells drives progressive fibrotic changes. Persistent lung injury due to oxidative stress and chronic inflammation are central features of lung fibrosis. Chronic cigarette smoking causes oxidative stress and is a major risk factor for lung fibrosis. The objective of this manuscript is to develop an adverse outcome pathway (AOP) that serves as a framework for investigation of the mechanisms of lung fibrosis due to lung injury caused by inhaled toxicants, including cigarette smoke. Based on the weight of evidence, oxidative stress is proposed as a molecular initiating event (MIE) which leads to increased secretion of proinflammatory and profibrotic mediators (key event 1 (KE1)). At the cellular level, these proinflammatory signals induce the recruitment of inflammatory cells (KE2), which in turn, increase fibroblast proliferation and myofibroblast differentiation (KE3). At the tissue level, an increase in extracellular matrix deposition (KE4) subsequently culminates in lung fibrosis, the adverse outcome. We have also defined a new KE relationship between the MIE and KE3. This AOP provides a mechanistic platform to understand and evaluate how persistent oxidative stress from lung injury may develop into lung fibrosis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241512490","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,6]],"date-time":"2023-08-06T10:01:53Z","timestamp":1691316113000},"page":"12490","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":66,"title":["Oxidative Stress and Lung Fibrosis: Towards an Adverse Outcome Pathway"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7199-0628","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrudu","family":"Makena","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Services Company, P.O. Box 1487, Winston-Salem, NC 27102, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tatiana","family":"Kikalova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clarivate Analytics, 1500 Spring Garden, Philadelphia, PA 19130, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6342-9750","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gaddamanugu L.","family":"Prasad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Former Employee of RAI Services Company, Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA"},{"name":"Prasad Scientific Consulting LLC, 490 Friendship Place Ct, Lewisville, NC 27023, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sarah A.","family":"Baxter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RAI Services Company, P.O. 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