{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,27]],"date-time":"2026-09-27T02:43:08Z","timestamp":1790476988642,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,13]],"date-time":"2023-10-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1697155200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a synaptic disorder with a GABA\/glutamate imbalance in the perineuronal nets and structural abnormalities such as increased dendritic spines and decreased long distance connections. Specific pregnancy disorders significantly increase the risk for an ASD phenotype such as preeclampsia, preterm birth, hypoxia phenomena, and spontaneous miscarriages. They are associated with defects in the glycosylation-immune placental processes implicated in neurogenesis. Some glycans epitopes expressed in the placenta, and specifically in the extra-villous trophoblast also have predominant functions in dendritic process and synapse function. Among these, the most important are CD57 or HNK1, CD22, CD24, CD33 and CD45. They modulate the innate immune cells at the maternal\u2013fetal interface and they promote foeto-maternal tolerance. There are many glycan-based pathways of immunosuppression. N-glycosylation pathway dysregulation has been found to be associated with autoimmune-like phenotypes and maternal-autoantibody-related (MAR) autism have been found to be associated with central, systemic and peripheric autoimmune processes. Essential molecular pathways associated with the glycan-epitopes expression have been found to be specifically dysregulated in ASD, notably the Slit\/Robo, Wnt, and mTOR\/RAGE signaling pathways. These modifications have important effects on major transcriptional pathways with important genetic expression consequences. These modifications lead to defects in neuronal progenitors and in the nervous system\u2019s implementation specifically, with further molecular defects in the GABA\/glutamate system. Glycosylation placental processes are crucial effectors for proper maternofetal immunity and endocrine\/paracrine pathways formation. Glycans\/ galectins expression regulate immunity and neurulation processes with a direct link with gene expression. These need to be clearly elucidated in ASD pathophysiology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms242015139","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,13]],"date-time":"2023-10-13T06:07:26Z","timestamp":1697177246000},"page":"15139","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Molecular and Cellular Insights: A Focus on Glycans and the HNK1 Epitope in Autism Spectrum Disorder"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Camille M.","family":"Hours","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"INSERM 1141, NeuroDiderot, Neuroprotection of the Developing Brain, Universit\u00e9 Paris Cit\u00e9, 75019 Paris, France"},{"name":"Service de Psychiatrie de l\u2019Enfant et de l\u2019Adolescent, APHP, H\u00f4pital Robert Debr\u00e9, 75019 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5197-7434","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sophie","family":"Gil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INSERM 1144, Therapeutics in Neuropsychopharmacology, Universit\u00e9 Paris Cit\u00e9, 75019 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0909-4221","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pierre","family":"Gressens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INSERM 1141, NeuroDiderot, Neuroprotection of the Developing Brain, Universit\u00e9 Paris Cit\u00e9, 75019 Paris, France"},{"name":"Neurologie P\u00e9diatrique, APHP, H\u00f4pital Robert Debr\u00e9, 75019 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1485","DOI":"10.1002\/1873-3468.14347","article-title":"Glycans as a key factor in self and nonself discrimination: Impact on the breach of immune tolerance","volume":"596","author":"Alves","year":"2022","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2754","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.02754","article-title":"Glycans as Key Checkpoints of T Cell Activity and Function","volume":"9","author":"Pereira","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. 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