{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T13:19:55Z","timestamp":1791551995445,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":110,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,24]],"date-time":"2023-10-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1698105600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Atherosclerosis constitutes a persistent inflammatory ailment, serving as the predominant underlying condition for coronary artery disease (CAD), peripheral artery disease (PAD), and cerebrovascular disease. The progressive buildup of plaques within the walls of medium- and large-caliber arteries characterizes the atherosclerotic process. This accumulation results in significant narrowing that impedes blood flow, leading to critical tissue oxygen deficiency. Spontaneous blockage of thrombotic vessels can precipitate stroke and myocardial infarction, which are complications representing the primary global causes of mortality. Present-day models for predicting cardiovascular risk incorporate conventional risk factors to gauge the likelihood of cardiovascular events over a ten-year span. In recent times, researchers have identified serum biomarkers associated with an elevated risk of atherosclerotic events. Many of these biomarkers, whether used individually or in combination, have been integrated into risk prediction models to assess whether their inclusion enhances predictive accuracy. In this review, we have conducted a comprehensive analysis of the most recently published literature concerning serum biomarkers associated with atherosclerosis. We have explored the potential utility of incorporating these markers in guiding clinical decisions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms242115546","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,25]],"date-time":"2023-10-25T04:14:47Z","timestamp":1698207287000},"page":"15546","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":41,"title":["Atherosclerosis and Its Related Laboratory Biomarkers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4334-7712","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vittoriano","family":"Della Corte","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Internal Medicine and Stroke Care Ward, Department of Health Promotion, Maternal and Infant Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialities (ProMISE) \u201cG. D\u2019Alessandro\u201d, University of Palermo, Piazza delle Cliniche n.2, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Federica","family":"Todaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internal Medicine and Stroke Care Ward, Department of Health Promotion, Maternal and Infant Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialities (ProMISE) \u201cG. D\u2019Alessandro\u201d, University of Palermo, Piazza delle Cliniche n.2, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marco","family":"Cataldi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internal Medicine and Stroke Care Ward, Department of Health Promotion, Maternal and Infant Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialities (ProMISE) \u201cG. D\u2019Alessandro\u201d, University of Palermo, Piazza delle Cliniche n.2, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6440-7318","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonino","family":"Tuttolomondo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internal Medicine and Stroke Care Ward, Department of Health Promotion, Maternal and Infant Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialities (ProMISE) \u201cG. D\u2019Alessandro\u201d, University of Palermo, Piazza delle Cliniche n.2, 90127 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"163","article-title":"Introduction of the special issue \u201cAtherosclerosis and Related Diseases\u201d","volume":"1","author":"Orekhov","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vessel Plus"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2840-5-4","article-title":"Endothelial dysfunction: A comprehensive appraisal","volume":"5","author":"Esper","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1568","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2019.01568","article-title":"Role of Endothelial Dysfunction in Cardiovascular Diseases: The Link Between Inflammation and Hydrogen Sulfide","volume":"10","author":"Sun","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"107","article-title":"Chemical composition of circulating native and desialylated low density lipoprotein: What is the difference?","volume":"1","author":"Alipov","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vessel Plus"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1422","DOI":"10.2741\/4653","article-title":"Modified lipoproteins as biomarkers of atherosclerosis","volume":"23","author":"Orekhov","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15296","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-72338-3","article-title":"Endothelial dysfunction in small arteries and early signs of atherosclerosis in ApoE knockout rats","volume":"10","author":"Ardestani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"305","article-title":"Lipoprotein subfractions and cardiovascular disease risk","volume":"21","author":"Krauss","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613780","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2020.613780","article-title":"Overview of OxLDL and Its Impact on Cardiovascular Health: Focus on Atherosclerosis","volume":"11","author":"Poznyak","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.118.313591","article-title":"Immunity and Inflammation in Atherosclerosis","volume":"124","author":"Wolf","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931931","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2022.931931","article-title":"Low-density lipoprotein particles in atherosclerosis","volume":"13","author":"Qiao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1273042","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/1273042","article-title":"Small Dense Low-Density Lipoprotein as Biomarker for Atherosclerotic Diseases","volume":"2017","author":"Ivanova","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbalip.2011.09.008","article-title":"The effect of hepatic lipase on coronary artery disease in humans is influenced by the underlying lipoprotein phenotype","volume":"1821","author":"Brunzell","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198904063201407","article-title":"Beyond cholesterol. Modifications of low-density lipoprotein that increase its atherogenicity","volume":"320","author":"Epstein","year":"1989","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9150(91)90211-K","article-title":"Desialylated low density lipoprotein--naturally occurring modified lipoprotein with atherogenic potency","volume":"86","author":"Orekhov","year":"1991","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) (2002). Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report. Circulation, 106, 3143\u20133421.","DOI":"10.1161\/circ.106.25.3143"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/s11789-015-0074-0","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a) hyperlipidemia as cardiovascular risk factor: Pathophysiological aspects","volume":"10","author":"Schmitz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Res. Cardiol. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1093\/clinchem\/hvaa252","article-title":"Residual Cardiovascular Risk at Low LDL: Remnants, Lipoprotein(a), and Inflammation","volume":"67","author":"Hoogeveen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1007\/s11886-021-01565-5","article-title":"Familial Hypercholesterolemia: Global Burden and Ap-proaches","volume":"23","author":"Tokgozoglu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Cardiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2019.03.010","article-title":"2019 ACC\/AHA Guideline on the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: A Report of the American College of Cardiology\/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines","volume":"74","author":"Arnett","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4658","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612822666160510124801","article-title":"Inflammation, Endothelial Dysfunction and Arterial Stiffness as Therapeutic Targets in Cardiovascular Medicine","volume":"22","author":"Tuttolomondo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1136","DOI":"10.1001\/jamacardio.2020.2413","article-title":"Effect of C-Reactive Protein on Lipoprotein(a)-Associated Cardiovascular Risk in Optimally Treated Patients With High-Risk Vascular Disease: A Prespecified Secondary Analysis of the ACCELERATE Trial","volume":"5","author":"Puri","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heo, J., and Kang, H. (2022). Exosome-Based Treatment for Atherosclerosis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23021002"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-021-00730-1","article-title":"The exosome journey: From biogenesis to uptake and intracellular signaling","volume":"19","author":"Gurung","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Commun. Signal."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaau6977","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aau6977","article-title":"The biology, function, and biomedical applications of exosomes","volume":"367","author":"Kalluri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-020-00581-2","article-title":"The crosstalk: Exosomes and lipid metabolism","volume":"18","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Commun. Signal."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8197","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.43968","article-title":"Corresponding address, Lijun Yuan. Brown adipose tissue-derived exosomes mitigate the metabolic syndrome in high fat diet mice","volume":"10","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3996","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.56035","article-title":"Exosomes in atherosclerosis: Performers, bystanders, biomarkers, and therapeutic targets","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e001249","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.114.001249","article-title":"MicroRNA expression in circulating microvesicles predicts cardiovascular events in patients with coronary artery disease","volume":"3","author":"Jansen","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1042\/CS20190651","article-title":"MicroRNAs as sentinels and protagonists of carotid artery thromboembolism","volume":"134","author":"Raju","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19429","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-54542-y","article-title":"Differential expression of circulating exosomal microRNAs in refractory intracranial atherosclerosis associated with antiangiogenesis","volume":"9","author":"Jiang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.118.314010","article-title":"Atherosclerotic Conditions Promote the Packaging of Functional MicroRNA-92a-3p into Endothelial Microvesicles","volume":"124","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"3298","article-title":"MiR-30e and miR-92a are related to atherosclerosis by targeting ABCA1","volume":"19","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s13105-019-00710-7","article-title":"MicroRNAs as the actors in the atherosclerosis scenario","volume":"76","author":"Hajibabaie","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvssci.2020.02.001","article-title":"Circulating exosomes from patients with peripheral artery disease influence vascular cell migration and contain distinct microRNA cargo","volume":"1","author":"Sorrentino","year":"2020","journal-title":"JVS Vasc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1066","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2020.05.012","article-title":"Technologies and Standardization in Research on Extracellular Vesicles","volume":"38","author":"Gandham","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)32814-3","article-title":"Relationship of C-reactive protein reduction to cardiovascular event reduction following treatment with canakinumab: A secondary analysis from the CANTOS randomized controlled trial","volume":"391","author":"Ridker","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1083","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2021.07.016","article-title":"High-sensitivity C-Reactive Protein Modifies the Cardiovascular Risk of Lipoprotein(a): Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis","volume":"78","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molimm.2022.04.003","article-title":"IL-6 regulates induction of C-reactive protein gene expression by activating STAT3 isoforms","volume":"146","author":"Ngwa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14188","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms14188","article-title":"Transitional changes in the CRP structure lead to the exposure of pro-inflammatory binding sites","volume":"8","author":"Braig","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199704033361401","article-title":"Inflammation, aspirin, and the risk of cardiovascular disease in apparently healthy men","volume":"336","author":"Ridker","year":"1997","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.98.8.731","article-title":"Prospective study of C-reactive protein and the risk of future cardiovascular events among apparently healthy women","volume":"98","author":"Ridker","year":"1998","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"980","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.288.8.980","article-title":"Inflammatory biomarkers, hormone replacement therapy, and incident coronary heart disease: Prospective analysis from the Women\u2019s Health Initiative observational study","volume":"288","author":"Pradhan","year":"2002","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2599","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa040967","article-title":"Inflammatory markers and the risk of coronary heart disease in men and women","volume":"351","author":"Pai","year":"2004","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.115.306656","article-title":"From C-Reactive Protein to Interleukin-6 to Interleukin-1: Moving Upstream to Identify Novel Targets for Atheroprotection","volume":"118","author":"Ridker","year":"2016","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1387","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa032804","article-title":"C-reactive protein and other circulating markers of inflammation in the prediction of coronary heart disease","volume":"350","author":"Danesh","year":"2004","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2063","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.165.18.2063","article-title":"High attributable risk of elevated C-reactive protein level to conventional coronary heart disease risk factors: The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey","volume":"165","author":"Miller","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000052939.59093.45","article-title":"Markers of inflammation and cardiovascular disease: Application to clinical and public health practice: A statement for healthcare professionals from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American Heart Association","volume":"107","author":"Pearson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1644","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2005.02.080","article-title":"Relative efficacy of atorvastatin 80 mg and pravastatin 40 mg in achieving the dual goals of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol <70 mg\/dL and C-reactive protein <2 mg\/L: An analysis of the PROVE-IT TIMI-22 trial","volume":"45","author":"Ridker","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2015.01.008","article-title":"NLRP3 inflammasome: From a danger signal sensor to a regulatory node of oxidative stress and inflammatory diseases","volume":"4","author":"Abderrazak","year":"2015","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2017.09.019","article-title":"Extracellular Lipids Accumulate in Human Carotid Arteries as Distinct Three-Dimensional Structures and Have Pro-inflammatory Properties","volume":"188","author":"Lehti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841545","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2022.841545","article-title":"Modified Lipoproteins Induce Arterial Wall Inflammation during Atherogenesis","volume":"9","author":"Lorey","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2017.04.005","article-title":"Cholesterol Accumulation in Dendritic Cells Links the Inflammasome to Acquired Immunity","volume":"25","author":"Westerterp","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1937","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.115.307312","article-title":"p38\u03b4 MAPK: A Novel Regulator of NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation With Increased Expression in Coronary Atherogenesis","volume":"36","author":"Risco","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arter. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3452","article-title":"Activation and regulation of the inflammasomes","volume":"13","author":"Latz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2016.12.007","article-title":"Inflammasome Priming in Sterile Inflammatory Disease","volume":"23","author":"Patel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1012","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibs.2016.09.002","article-title":"Mechanism and Regulation of NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation","volume":"41","author":"He","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Biochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2017.09.028","article-title":"Interleukin-1 Beta as a Target for Atherosclerosis Therapy: Biological Basis of CANTOS and Beyond","volume":"70","author":"Libby","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e003031","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.115.003031","article-title":"NLRP3 Inflammasome Expression and Activation in Human Atherosclerosis","volume":"5","author":"Varghese","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1007\/s12265-020-10049-w","article-title":"Immunomodulation of the NLRP3 Inflammasome in Atherosclerosis, Coronary Artery Disease, and Acute Myocardial Infarction","volume":"14","author":"Silvis","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Cardiovasc. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.004390","article-title":"Atheroprone flow activation of the sterol regulatory element binding protein 2 and nod-like receptor protein 3 inflammasome mediates focal atherosclerosis","volume":"128","author":"Abe","year":"2013","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"394","article-title":"Interleukin-1 activation of vascular endothelium. Effects on procoagulant activity and leukocyte adhesion","volume":"121","author":"Bevilacqua","year":"1985","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI113346","article-title":"Interleukin 1: A mitogen for human vascular smooth muscle cells that induces the release of growth-inhibitory prostanoids","volume":"81","author":"Libby","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.immunol.021908.132612","article-title":"Immunological and inflammatory functions of the interleukin-1 family","volume":"27","author":"Dinarello","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3463","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.175.6.3463","article-title":"Directing transition from innate to acquired immunity: Defining a role for IL-6","volume":"175","author":"Jones","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2847","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfp141","article-title":"Influence of interleukin-6 G-174C gene polymorphism on coronary artery disease, cardiovascular complications and mortality in dialysis patients","volume":"24","author":"Aker","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e005077","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.116.005077","article-title":"Inflammatory Biomarkers Interleukin-6 and C-Reactive Protein and Outcomes in Stable Coronary Heart Disease: Experiences From the STABILITY (Stabilization of Atherosclerotic Plaque by Initiation of Darapladib Therapy) Trial","volume":"6","author":"Held","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"279","article-title":"Proinflammatory circulating molecules in peripheral arterial disease","volume":"20","author":"Signorelli","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Signorelli, S.S., Marino, E., Scuto, S., and Di Raimondo, D. (2020). Pathophysiology of Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD): A Review on Oxidative Disorders. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21124393"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3459","DOI":"10.3892\/mmr.2016.5644","article-title":"Plasma heme oxygenase-1 is decreased in peripheral artery disease patients","volume":"14","author":"Signorelli","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.5603\/AA.2022.0013","article-title":"Leukotrienes in the atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases\u2014A systematic review","volume":"28","author":"Kaszuba","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Angiol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2016.04.013","article-title":"Urinary cysteinyl leukotrienes in one-year follow-up of percutaneous transluminal angioplasty for peripheral arterial occlusive disease","volume":"249","author":"Maga","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1118","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.118.313816","article-title":"Atherosclerosis","volume":"123","author":"Kobiyama","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0849-9","article-title":"Gut intraepithelial T cells calibrate metabolism and accelerate cardiovascular disease","volume":"566","author":"He","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1130","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.031420","article-title":"Regulatory CD4+ T Cells Recognize Major Histocompatibility Complex Class II Molecule-Restricted Peptide Epitopes of Apolipoprotein B","volume":"138","author":"Kimura","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-100311-102839","article-title":"Decisions about dendritic cells: Past, present, and future","volume":"30","author":"Steinman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3114","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI61758","article-title":"Dynamic T cell-APC interactions sustain chronic inflammation in atherosclerosis","volume":"122","author":"Koltsova","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1675","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.117.312513","article-title":"Atlas of the Immune Cell Repertoire in Mouse Atherosclerosis Defined by Single-Cell RNA-Sequencing and Mass Cytometry","volume":"122","author":"Winkels","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9150(88)90074-3","article-title":"Localization of T lymphocytes and macrophages in fibrous and complicated human atherosclerotic plaques","volume":"72","author":"Hansson","year":"1988","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1161\/01.ATV.6.2.131","article-title":"Regional accumulations of T cells, macrophages, and smooth muscle cells in the human atherosclerotic plaque","volume":"6","author":"Jonasson","year":"1986","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Dallas Tex"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1661","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.117.312509","article-title":"Single-Cell RNA-Seq Reveals the Transcriptional Landscape and Heterogeneity of Aortic Macrophages in Murine Atherosclerosis","volume":"122","author":"Cochain","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1360","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvy109","article-title":"Immune cell census in murine atherosclerosis: Cytometry by time of flight illuminates vascular myeloid cell diversity","volume":"114","author":"Cole","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1576","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-019-0590-4","article-title":"Single-cell immune landscape of human atherosclerotic plaques","volume":"25","author":"Fernandez","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2351","DOI":"10.1161\/01.ATV.0000147112.84168.87","article-title":"Quantitative and qualitative differences in proatherogenic NKT cells in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice","volume":"24","author":"Major","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1160\/TH09-01-0020","article-title":"Effect of natural killer T cell activation on the initiation of atherosclerosis","volume":"102","author":"Hauer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Thromb. Haemost."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.116.304734","article-title":"CD4+ natural killer T cells potently augment aortic root atherosclerosis by perforin- and granzyme B-dependent cytotoxicity","volume":"116","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173090","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2020.173090","article-title":"Macrophage M1\/M2 polarization","volume":"877","author":"Yunna","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI59643","article-title":"Macrophage plasticity and polarization: In vivo veritas","volume":"122","author":"Sica","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"948098","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/948098","article-title":"Macrophages in tumor microenvironments and the progression of tumors","volume":"2012","author":"Hao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Dev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.119.312802","article-title":"Macrophages in Atherosclerosis Regression","volume":"40","author":"Barrett","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3042","DOI":"10.1002\/1873-3468.12786","article-title":"Macrophage metabolism in atherosclerosis","volume":"591","author":"Bories","year":"2017","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1097\/MOL.0000000000000539","article-title":"Metabolism of innate immune cells: Impact on atherosclerosis","volume":"29","author":"Riksen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.115.306256","article-title":"Macrophage Phenotype and Function in Different Stages of Atherosclerosis","volume":"118","author":"Tabas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1738","DOI":"10.2174\/1389450122666210120143450","article-title":"Implications of microRNAs in the Pathogenesis of Atherosclerosis and Prospects for Therapy","volume":"22","author":"Gorabi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Drug Targets"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"642","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2009.01.035","article-title":"Origins and Mechanisms of miRNAs and siRNAs","volume":"136","author":"Carthew","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.1038\/ng1590","article-title":"Identification of hundreds of conserved and nonconserved human microRNAs","volume":"37","author":"Bentwich","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1253\/circj.CJ-14-0086","article-title":"Emerging role of microRNAs in cardiovascular diseases","volume":"78","author":"Curcio","year":"2014","journal-title":"Circ. J."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02871","article-title":"The functions of animal microRNAs","volume":"431","author":"Ambros","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2012.03.007","article-title":"MicroRNAs and atherosclerosis: New actors for an old movie","volume":"22","author":"Santovito","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.17219\/acem\/62915","article-title":"MicroRNA in cardiovascular biology and disease","volume":"26","author":"Wojciechowska","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Clin. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2017.11.046","article-title":"MicroRNAs as novel biomarkers for colorectal cancer: New outlooks","volume":"97","author":"Shirafkan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.2174\/1566524021666210315124438","article-title":"Circulating miRNA in Atherosclerosis: A Clinical Biomarker and Early Diagnostic Tool","volume":"22","author":"Sharma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.3349\/ymj.2018.59.4.495","article-title":"Prognostic Value of MicroRNAs in Coronary Artery Diseases: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"59","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Yonsei Med. J."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E159","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.118.310227","article-title":"Impact of miRNA in Atherosclerosis","volume":"38","author":"Lu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e001223","DOI":"10.1136\/openhrt-2019-001223","article-title":"MiR-223-3p and miR-122-5p as circulating biomarkers for plaque instability","volume":"7","author":"Singh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Open Heart"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1253\/circj.CJ-19-1181","article-title":"Circulating MicroRNA-423-3p Improves the Prediction of Coronary Artery Disease in a General Population\u2013Six-Year Follow-up Results From the China-Cardiovascular Disease Study","volume":"84","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Circ. J."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e19971","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000019971","article-title":"Circulating microRNAs as biomarkers for severe coronary artery disease","volume":"99","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2040622319894466","DOI":"10.1177\/2040622319894466","article-title":"Pathophysiology of chronic peripheral ischemia: New perspectives","volume":"11","author":"Signorelli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Chronic Dis."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4350","DOI":"10.2174\/138161212802481273","article-title":"Inflammation in peripheral arterial disease (PAD)","volume":"18","author":"Signorelli","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1327","DOI":"10.1007\/s11010-020-03992-4","article-title":"Implications for MicroRNA involvement in the prognosis and treatment of atherosclerosis","volume":"476","author":"Tabaei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Toor, S.M., Aldous, E.K., Parray, A., Akhtar, N., Al-Sarraj, Y., Abdelalim, E.M., Arredouani, A., El-Agnaf, O., Thornalley, P.J., and Pananchikkal, S.V. (2022). Circulating MicroRNA Profiling Identifies Distinct MicroRNA Signatures in Acute Ischemic Stroke and Transient Ischemic Attack Patients. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24010108"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/24\/21\/15546\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:11:12Z","timestamp":1760130672000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/24\/21\/15546"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,24]]},"references-count":110,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms242115546"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms242115546","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,24]]}}}