{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,20]],"date-time":"2026-04-20T14:23:13Z","timestamp":1776694993180,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,5]],"date-time":"2023-11-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1699142400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Italian Ministry of Health"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Optic neuritis (ON) is the most common cause of vision loss in young adults. It manifests as acute or subacute vision loss, often accompanied by retrobulbar discomfort or pain during eye movements. Typical ON is associated with Multiple Sclerosis (MS) and is generally mild and steroid-responsive. Atypical forms are characterized by unusual features, such as prominent optic disc edema, poor treatment response, and bilateral involvement, and they are often associated with autoantibodies against aquaporin-4 (AQP4) or Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein (MOG). However, in some cases, AQP4 and MOG antibodies will return as negative, plunging the clinician into a diagnostic conundrum. AQP4- and MOG-seronegative ON warrants a broad differential diagnosis, including autoantibody-associated, granulomatous, and systemic disorders. These rare forms need to be identified promptly, as their management and prognosis are greatly different. The aim of this review is to describe the possible rarer etiologies of non-MS-related and AQP4- and MOG-IgG-seronegative inflammatory ON and discuss their diagnoses and treatments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms242115986","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,5]],"date-time":"2023-11-05T07:35:06Z","timestamp":1699169706000},"page":"15986","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Beyond Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein and Aquaporin-4 Antibodies: Alternative Causes of Optic Neuritis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8097-0565","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giacomo","family":"Greco","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Multiple Sclerosis Centre, IRCCS Mondino Foundation, 27100 Pavia, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Elena","family":"Colombo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Multiple Sclerosis Centre, IRCCS Mondino Foundation, 27100 Pavia, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2288-2000","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matteo","family":"Gastaldi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuroimmunology Research Unit, IRCCS Mondino Foundation, 27100 Pavia, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lara","family":"Ahmad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Multiple Sclerosis Centre, IRCCS Mondino Foundation, 27100 Pavia, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2580-3646","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eleonora","family":"Tavazzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Multiple Sclerosis Centre, IRCCS Mondino Foundation, 27100 Pavia, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1397-511X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberto","family":"Bergamaschi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Multiple Sclerosis Centre, IRCCS Mondino Foundation, 27100 Pavia, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9669-0234","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eleonora","family":"Rigoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Multiple Sclerosis Centre, IRCCS Mondino Foundation, 27100 Pavia, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(22)00187-9","article-title":"Optic neuritis and autoimmune optic neuropathies: Advances in diagnosis and treatment","volume":"22","author":"Bennett","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/01658107.2021.1964541","article-title":"Update on Optic Neuritis: An International View","volume":"46","author":"Hickman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuroophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2017.6757","article-title":"Prevalence of Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein and Aquaporin-4-IgG in Patients in the Optic Neuritis Treatment Trial","volume":"136","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2020.07.014","article-title":"Population-Based Incidence of Optic Neuritis in the Era of Aquaporin-4 and Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibodies","volume":"220","author":"Hassan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Optic Neuritis Study Group (2008). Visual function 15 years after optic neuritis: A final follow-up report from the Optic Neuritis Treatment Trial. Ophthalmology, 115, 1079\u20131082.e5.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2007.08.004"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2016.06.036","article-title":"Recovery from optic neuritis attack in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder and multiple sclerosis","volume":"367","author":"Masuda","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"2055217318791196","article-title":"Differences in clinical features between optic neuritis in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders and in multiple sclerosis","volume":"4","author":"Srikajon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. J.-Exp. Transl. Clin."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2391","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-023-02477-0","article-title":"The neuro-ophthalmological manifestations of NMOSD and MOGAD\u2014A comprehensive review","volume":"37","author":"Moheb","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(21)00218-0","article-title":"Myelin-oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease","volume":"20","author":"Marignier","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2014-310206","article-title":"MRI and retinal abnormalities in isolated optic neuritis with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein and aquaporin-4 antibodies: A comparative study","volume":"87","author":"Akaishi","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101965","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2020.101965","article-title":"Prodromal headache in MOG-antibody positive optic neuritis","volume":"40","author":"Asseyer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1120","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(22)00200-9","article-title":"Diagnosis and classification of optic neuritis","volume":"21","author":"Petzold","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5113","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-023-11920-x","article-title":"An update on optic neuritis","volume":"270","author":"Kraker","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E653","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000013087","article-title":"Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein Autoimmunity: A French Cohort Study","volume":"98","author":"Ameli","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1097\/WCO.0000000000000676","article-title":"Autoimmune glial fibrillary acidic protein astrocytopathy","volume":"32","author":"Kunchok","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1297","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2016.2549","article-title":"Autoimmune glial fibrillary acidic protein astrocytopathy: A novel meningoencephalomyelitis","volume":"73","author":"Fang","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"720","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000200291","article-title":"Leptomeningeal Gadolinium Enhancement in Autoimmune GFAP Astrocytopathy","volume":"98","author":"Azzolini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.26195","article-title":"Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Autoimmune GFAP Astrocytopathy","volume":"90","author":"Tewkesbury","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2018.04.016","article-title":"Autoimmune GFAP astrocytopathy: Prospective evaluation of 90 patients in 1 year","volume":"321","author":"Dubey","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e200146","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000200146","article-title":"Visual System Involvement in Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein Astrocytopathy: Two Case Reports and a Systematic Literature Review","volume":"10","author":"Greco","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1080\/00207454.2020.1758084","article-title":"Serum glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-antibody in idiopathic intracranial hypertension","volume":"131","author":"Yetimler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1016\/S0896-6273(00)80194-4","article-title":"GFAP is necessary for the integrity of CNS white matter architecture and long-term maintenance of myelination","volume":"17","author":"Liedtke","year":"1996","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1097\/WNO.0000000000000593","article-title":"Optic disc edema in glial fibrillary acidic protein autoantibody-positive meningoencephalitis","volume":"38","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neuro-Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577748","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2021.577748","article-title":"Autoimmune glial fibrillary acidic protein astrocytopathy resembling isolated central nervous system lymphomatoid granulomatosis","volume":"361","author":"Kimura","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2589","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-020-09869-2","article-title":"Overlapping syndrome of MOG-IgG-associated disease and autoimmune GFAP astrocytopathy","volume":"267","author":"Ding","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"e17588","article-title":"Subacute Blindness Revealing an Autoimmune Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein Astrocytopathy","volume":"13","author":"Mabrouki","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1136\/practneurol-2020-002805","article-title":"Anti-GFAP neuroinflammation with synchronous bilateral papillitis and characteristic imaging","volume":"21","author":"Utley","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pract. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e103","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000004803","article-title":"Autoimmune CRMP5 neuropathy phenotype and outcome defined from 105 cases","volume":"90","author":"Dubey","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2019.09.012","article-title":"Collapsin Response-Mediator Protein 5\u2013Associated Retinitis, Vitritis, and Optic Disc Edema","volume":"127","author":"Cohen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1080\/01658107.2016.1241283","article-title":"Anti-Collapsing Response-Mediating Protein-5 Antibody\u2013Positive Paraneoplastic Perioptic Neuritis without Typical Neurological Symptoms","volume":"41","author":"Igarashi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuro-Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.10587","article-title":"Paraneoplastic autoimmune optic neuritis with retinitis defined by CRMP-5-IgG","volume":"54","author":"Cross","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-006-0471-x","article-title":"Isolated paraneoplastic optic neuropathy associated with small-cell lung cancer and anti-CV2 antibodies","volume":"254","author":"Saiz","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajoc.2017.09.003","article-title":"Successful long-term treatment of paraneoplastic optic neuropathy with mycophenolate mofetil, prednisone, and plasmapheresis","volume":"8","author":"Durrani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"2626","article-title":"Role of Anti-Recoverin Autoantibodies in Cancer-Associated Retinopathy","volume":"34","author":"Adamus","year":"1993","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"P6.131","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.86.16_supplement.P6.131","article-title":"Recoverin Antibody: Ophthalmologic & Oncologic Significance (P6.131)","volume":"86","author":"Lopez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tzartos, J.S., Stergiou, C., Kilidireas, K., Zisimopoulou, P., Thomaidis, T., and Tzartos, S.J. (2013). Anti-aquaporin-1 autoantibodies in patients with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0074773"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1159\/000364904","article-title":"Aquaporin-1 antibody in neuromyelitis optical patients","volume":"72","author":"Tzartos","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e160","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000000160","article-title":"Antibodies to aquaporin-1 are not present in neuromyelitis optica","volume":"2","author":"Schanda","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104694","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2023.104694","article-title":"Serum IgG of patients with relapsing inflammatory optic neuropathy immunoreacts with Sox2-positive glial cells of the optic nerve","volume":"73","author":"Emekli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2178","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awu142","article-title":"Glycine receptor antibodies in PERM and related syndromes: Characteristics, clinical features and outcomes","volume":"137","author":"Leite","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2014.3602","article-title":"Antibodies to aquaporin 4, myelin-oligodendrocyte glycoprotein, and the glycine receptor \u03b11 subunit in patients with isolated optic neuritis","volume":"72","author":"Sepulveda","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1018","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra2101555","article-title":"Challenges of Sarcoidosis and Its Management","volume":"385","author":"Drent","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2153","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra071714","article-title":"Sarcoidosis","volume":"357","author":"Iannuzzi","year":"2007","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537382","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.537382","article-title":"Sarcoidosis Epidemiology: Race Matters","volume":"11","author":"Hena","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e270","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000000270","article-title":"Optic neuropathy associated with systemic sarcoidosis","volume":"3","author":"Kidd","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. NeuroInflammation"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1136\/practneurol-2019-002349","article-title":"Neurosarcoidosis: Clinical manifestations, investigation and treatment","volume":"20","author":"Kidd","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pract. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"13","article-title":"Neuro-ophthalmic sarcoidosis","volume":"4","author":"Weiss","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eye Brain"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-019-0096-x","article-title":"Sarcoidosis","volume":"5","author":"Grunewald","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Prim."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577958","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2022.577958","article-title":"Management of neurosarcoidosis","volume":"372","author":"Kidd","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458517699791","article-title":"Aquaporin-4-autoimmunity in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: A predominantly population-based study","volume":"24","author":"Asgari","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1755-3768.2008.01193.x","article-title":"Systemic lupus erythematosus-associated optic neuritis: Clinical experience and literature review","volume":"87","author":"Lin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2014.08.017","article-title":"Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Wegener): Clinical aspects and treatment","volume":"13","author":"Comarmond","year":"2014","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-021-00301-1","article-title":"Beh\u00e7et syndrome","volume":"7","author":"Yazici","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Prim."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1080\/09273948.2017.1279840","article-title":"Beh\u00e7et Uveitis","volume":"25","author":"Cunningham","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ocul. Immunol. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1097\/ICU.0000000000000843","article-title":"Occlusive retinal vasculitis: Novel insights into causes, pathogenesis and treatment","volume":"33","author":"Arepalli","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3065","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-013-7070-4","article-title":"Optic neuropathy in Beh\u00e7et\u2019s syndrome","volume":"260","author":"Kidd","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.3109\/01676830.2013.841716","article-title":"Wegener granulomatosis-associated optic perineuritis","volume":"33","author":"Takazawa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Orbit"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1442-9071.2009.02122.x","article-title":"Optic perineuritis secondary to Wegener\u2019s granulomatosis","volume":"37","author":"Purvin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Experiment. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"345","article-title":"Optic perineuritis as the presenting feature of Crohn disease","volume":"32","author":"McClelland","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neuro-Ophthalmol. Off. J. N. Am. Neuro-Ophthalmol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e243997","DOI":"10.1136\/bcr-2021-243997","article-title":"Optic nerve perineuritis and retroperitoneal panniculitis: Rare first presentations of Beh\u00e7et\u2019s disease","volume":"14","author":"Yoshioka","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"342","article-title":"Optic Perineuritis in Beh\u00e7et Disease","volume":"35","author":"Lai","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neuro-Ophthalmol. Off. J. N. Am. Neuro-Ophthalmol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1089","DOI":"10.1007\/s40123-020-00313-2","article-title":"Immunoglobulin G4-Related Orbital Disease with Bilateral Optic Perineuritis and Maxillary Nerves Involvement: A Case Report","volume":"9","author":"Hung","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ophthalmol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-015-0617-2","article-title":"Optic Perineuritis","volume":"16","author":"Hickman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Neurol. Neurosci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awg045","article-title":"Chronic relapsing inflammatory optic neuropathy (CRION)","volume":"126","author":"Kidd","year":"2003","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"848","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458513510223","article-title":"Relapsing optic neuritis: A multicentre study of 62 patients","volume":"20","author":"Benoilid","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. J."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-013-6957-4","article-title":"Chronic relapsing inflammatory optic neuropathy: A systematic review of 122 cases reported","volume":"261","author":"Petzold","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1423","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2018-313142","article-title":"Antibodies to myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein in chronic relapsing inflammatory optic neuropathy","volume":"103","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1660","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.2009.159350","article-title":"Clinical characteristics, diagnostic criteria and therapeutic outcomes in autoimmune optic neuropathy","volume":"93","author":"Frohman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Liu, G.T., Volpe, N.J., and Volpe, G. (2019). Liu, Volpe, and Galetta\u2019s Neuro-Ophthalmology, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.3109\/01658107.2015.1004589","article-title":"Pain in Optic Perineuritis: Author Response","volume":"39","author":"Coppens","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuroophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/01658107.2019.1607883","article-title":"Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody (MOG-IgG)-Positive Optic Perineuritis","volume":"44","author":"Flanagan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuroophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1299","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.119.9.1299","article-title":"Optic Perineuritis: Clinical and Radiographic Features","volume":"119","author":"Purvin","year":"2001","journal-title":"Arch. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"115","article-title":"Acute and subacute inflammation of the optic nerve and its sheath: Clinical features in Chinese patients","volume":"18","author":"Cheng","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hong Kong Med. J. Xianggang Yi Xue Za Zhi"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.4329\/wjr.v6.i4.106","article-title":"Orbital inflammatory disease: Pictorial review and differential diagnosis","volume":"6","author":"Pakdaman","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1148\/radiol.2273010758","article-title":"The optic nerve tram-track sign","volume":"227","author":"Kanamalla","year":"2003","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e000745","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjophth-2021-000745","article-title":"Optic perineuritis","volume":"6","author":"Gupta","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ open Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2019","DOI":"10.1016\/S0161-6420(03)00787-5","article-title":"Optic nerve sheath meningiomas","volume":"110","author":"Saeed","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1590\/0004-282x-anp-2021-0157","article-title":"Disease course of Chronic Relapsing Inflammatory Optic Neuropathy (CRION) in a single care center","volume":"80","author":"Medina","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arq. Neuropsiquiatr."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nerep.2023.100170","article-title":"Anti-CRMP5 optic neuropathy associated with oral squamous cell carcinoma","volume":"3","author":"Nulton","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuroimmunol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1159\/000509861","article-title":"Paraneoplastic Focal Outer Retinitis and Optic Neuropathy in a Patient with Small Cell Lung Carcinoma and Anti-CRMP5, Anti-HU and Anti-Amphiphysin Antibodies","volume":"11","author":"Giralt","year":"2020","journal-title":"Case Rep. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eslami, M., Lichtman-Mikol, S., Razmjou, S., and Bernitsas, E. (2022). Optical Coherence Tomography in Chronic Relapsing Inflammatory Optic Neuropathy, Neuromyelitis Optica and Multiple Sclerosis: A Comparative Study. Brain Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci12091140"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577851","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2022.577851","article-title":"Neuro-ophthalmological manifestations of sarcoidosis","volume":"367","author":"Yates","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.3109\/01658107.2014.937876","article-title":"Evaluation of retinal nerve fiber layer in patients with idiopathic optic perineuritis using optical coherence tomography","volume":"39","author":"Byon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuro-Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"59","article-title":"Infectious optic neuropathies: A clinical update","volume":"7","author":"Kahloun","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eye Brain"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/24\/21\/15986\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:17:49Z","timestamp":1760131069000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/24\/21\/15986"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,5]]},"references-count":84,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms242115986"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms242115986","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,5]]}}}