{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T05:36:52Z","timestamp":1789018612221,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,16]],"date-time":"2023-11-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1700092800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program","award":["801076"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["801076"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI) have higher infection rates compared to those without SCI. In this review, the immune status difference between individuals with and without traumatic SCI is investigated by examining their peripheral immune cells and markers. PubMed, Cochrane, EMBASE, and Ovid MEDLINE were searched without language or date restrictions. Studies reporting peripheral immune markers\u2019 concentration and changes in functional capabilities of immune cells that compared individuals with and without SCI were included. Studies with participants with active infection, immune disease, and central nervous system (CNS) immune markers were excluded. The review followed the PRISMA guidelines. Effect estimates were measured by Weighted Mean Difference (WMD) using a random-effects model. Study quality was assessed using the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Quality Assessment Tool. Fifty-four studies (1813 with SCI and 1378 without SCI) contributed to the meta-analysis. Leukocytes (n = 23, WMD 0.78, 95% CI 0.17; 1.38, I2 83%), neutrophils (n = 11, WMD 0.76, 95% CI 0.09; 1.42, I2 89%), C-reactive protein (CRP) (n = 12, WMD 2.25, 95% CI 1.14; 3.56, I2 95%), and IL6 (n = 13, WMD 2.33, 95% CI 1.20; 3.49, I2 97%) were higher in individuals with SCI vs. without SCI. Clinical factors (phase of injury, completeness of injury, sympathetic innervation impairment, age, sex) and study-related factors (sample size, study design, and serum vs. plasma) partially explained heterogeneity. Immune cells exhibited lower functional capability in individuals with SCI vs. those without SCI. Most studies (75.6%) had a moderate risk of bias. The immune status of individuals with SCI differs from those without SCI and is clinically influenced by the phase of injury, completeness of injury, sympathetic innervation impairment, age, and sex. These results provide information that is vital for monitoring and management strategies to effectively improve the immune status of individuals with SCI.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms242216385","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,16]],"date-time":"2023-11-16T01:56:29Z","timestamp":1700099789000},"page":"16385","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Immune Status of Individuals with Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2172-357X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ezra","family":"Valido","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Swiss Paraplegic Research, 6207 Nottwil, Switzerland"},{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine, University of Lucerne, 6003 Lucerne, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8504-2012","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriela","family":"Boehl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Swiss Paraplegic Research, 6207 Nottwil, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J\u00f6rg","family":"Krebs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Trial Unit, Swiss Paraplegic Center, 6207 Nottwil, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J\u00fcrgen","family":"Pannek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuro-Urology, Swiss Paraplegic Center, 6207 Nottwil, Switzerland"},{"name":"Department of Urology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stevan","family":"Stojic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Swiss Paraplegic Research, 6207 Nottwil, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Atanas G.","family":"Atanasov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ludwig Boltzman Institute for Digital Health and Patient Safety, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria"},{"name":"Institute of Genetics and Animal Biotechnology of the Polish Academy of Sciences, 05-552 Magdalenka, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marija","family":"Glisic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Swiss Paraplegic Research, 6207 Nottwil, Switzerland"},{"name":"Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine (ISPM), University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6842-6284","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jivko","family":"Stoyanov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Swiss Paraplegic Research, 6207 Nottwil, Switzerland"},{"name":"Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine (ISPM), University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeffries, M.A., and Tom, V.J. 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