{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,20]],"date-time":"2026-10-20T19:54:01Z","timestamp":1792526041059,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,18]],"date-time":"2023-11-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1700265600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), the most common and severe of the idiopathic interstitial pneumonias, is a chronic and relentlessly progressive disease, which occurs mostly in middle-aged and elderly males. Although IPF is by definition \u201cidiopathic\u201d, multiple factors have been reported to increase disease risk, aging being the most prominent one. Several occupational and environmental exposures, including metal dust, wood dust and air pollution, as well as various lifestyle variables, including smoking and diet, have also been associated with an increased risk of IPF, probably through interaction with genetic factors. Many of the predisposing factors appear to act also as trigger for acute exacerbations of the disease, which herald a poor prognosis. The more recent literature on inhalation injuries has focused on the first responders in the World Trade Center attacks and military exposure. In this review, we present an overview of the environmental and occupational causes of IPF and its pathogenesis. While our list is not comprehensive, we have selected specific exposures to highlight based on their overall disease burden.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms242216481","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,18]],"date-time":"2023-11-18T07:33:18Z","timestamp":1700292798000},"page":"16481","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":66,"title":["Environmental Causes of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Sheiphali","family":"Gandhi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0924, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6202-0758","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberto","family":"Tonelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Respiratory Disease Unit, University Hospital of Modena, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 42125 Modena, Italy"},{"name":"Laboratory of Cell Therapies and Respiratory Medicine, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences for Children & Adults, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41124 Modena, Italy"},{"name":"Clinical and Experimental Medicine PhD Program, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 42121 Modena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1745-2778","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Margaret","family":"Murray","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0924, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna Valeria","family":"Samarelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Respiratory Disease Unit, University Hospital of Modena, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 42125 Modena, Italy"},{"name":"Laboratory of Cell Therapies and Respiratory Medicine, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences for Children & Adults, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41124 Modena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1096-0596","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paolo","family":"Spagnolo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Respiratory Disease Unit, Department of Cardiac, Thoracic, Vascular Sciences and Public Health, University of Padova, 35128 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00185114","article-title":"Global incidence and mortality of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: A systematic review","volume":"46","author":"Hutchinson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. 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