{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T15:08:43Z","timestamp":1793372923720,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":115,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,22]],"date-time":"2023-11-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1700611200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Gestational diabetes (GDM) is the carbohydrate intolerance occurring during pregnancy. The risk factors of GDM include obesity, advanced maternal age, polycystic ovary syndrome, multigravidity, a sedentary lifestyle, and pre-existing hypertension. Additionally, complex genetic and epigenetic processes are also believed to play a crucial role in the development of GDM. In this narrative review, we discuss the role of genetic and epigenetic factors in gestational diabetes mellitus pathogenesis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms242316619","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,22]],"date-time":"2023-11-22T08:47:43Z","timestamp":1700642863000},"page":"16619","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Genetic and Epigenetic Factors in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Pathology"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4754-3235","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u0141ukasz","family":"Ustianowski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Pomeranian Medical University, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7881-6072","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jakub","family":"Udzik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Pomeranian Medical University, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Cardiac Surgery, Pomeranian Medical University, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joanna","family":"Szostak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Pomeranian Medical University, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9288-8689","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Gor\u0105cy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Molecular Biochemistry, Pomeranian Medical University, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Klaudia","family":"Ustianowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Pomeranian Medical University, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6557-1208","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrzej","family":"Pawlik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Pomeranian Medical University, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"American Diabetes Association (2020). 2. Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes. Diabetes Care, 43, S14\u2013S31."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1111\/ahg.12356","article-title":"The role of genetics and epigenetics in the pathogenesis of gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"84","author":"Rosik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1210\/endrev\/bnac003","article-title":"A Clinical Update on Gestational Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"43","author":"Sweeting","year":"2022","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"850","DOI":"10.4239\/wjd.v6.i6.850","article-title":"Diabetes mellitus: The epidemic of the century","volume":"6","author":"Kharroubi","year":"2015","journal-title":"World J. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S251","DOI":"10.2337\/dc07-s225","article-title":"Summary and Recommendations of the Fifth International Workshop-Conference on Gestational Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"30","author":"Metzger","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1773","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(09)60731-5","article-title":"Type 2 diabetes mellitus after gestational diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"373","author":"Bellamy","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabet.2010.11.014","article-title":"Definition, epidemiology, risk factors","volume":"36","author":"Galtier","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.2147\/IJWH.S13333","article-title":"Gestational diabetes: Risks, management, and treatment options","volume":"2","author":"Kim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Womens Health"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcjd.2016.11.009","article-title":"GCK, GCKR, FADS1, DGKB\/TMEM195 and CDKAL1 Gene Polymorphisms in Women with Gestational Diabetes","volume":"41","author":"Tarnowski","year":"2017","journal-title":"Can. J. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1080\/15592294.2019.1582277","article-title":"Nutrigenetics, epigenetics and gestational diabetes: Consequences in mother and child","volume":"14","author":"Franzago","year":"2019","journal-title":"Epigenetics"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602477","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2020.602477","article-title":"Genetics and Epigenetics: New Insight on Gestational Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"11","author":"Burlina","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.2174\/157339910793499155","article-title":"Genetics in gestational diabetes mellitus: Association with incidence, severity, pregnancy outcome and response to treatment","volume":"6","author":"Lambrinoudaki","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. Diabetes Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6113","DOI":"10.1038\/srep06113","article-title":"Relationship between melatonin receptor 1B and insulin receptor substrate 1 polymorphisms with gestational diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"4","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.2147\/DMSO.S179793","article-title":"Maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY): Current perspectives on diagnosis and treatment","volume":"12","author":"Urakami","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Syndr. Obesity Targets Ther."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e280122200657","DOI":"10.2174\/1573399818666220128124043","article-title":"Maturity-onset Diabetes of the Young (MODY) in Pregnancy: A Review","volume":"19","author":"Majewska","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Diabetes Rev."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-5448.2011.00827.x","article-title":"Comprehensive molecular analysis of Japanese patients with pediatric-onset MODY-type diabetes mellitus","volume":"13","author":"Yorifuji","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatr. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e126","DOI":"10.5001\/omj.2020.44","article-title":"Genetics and Pathophysiology of Maturity-onset Diabetes of the Young (MODY): A Review of Current Trends","volume":"35","author":"Yahaya","year":"2020","journal-title":"Oman Med. J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e6629","DOI":"10.1002\/ccr3.6629","article-title":"GCK-MODY in pregnancy: A pregnant woman with diabetes and a small-for-gestational-age fetus","volume":"10","author":"Yau","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1007\/s11892-018-0982-8","article-title":"Clinical Management of Women with Monogenic Diabetes During Pregnancy","volume":"18","author":"Dickens","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Diabetes Rep."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1332","DOI":"10.1111\/dme.13388","article-title":"Management of sulfonylurea-treated monogenic diabetes in pregnancy: Implications of placental glibenclamide transfer","volume":"34","author":"Shepherd","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pearson, E.R., Boj, S.F., Steele, A.M., Barrett, T., Stals, K., Shield, J.P., Ellard, S., Ferrer, J., and Hattersley, A.T. (2007). Macrosomia and Hyperinsulinaemic Hypoglycaemia in Patients with Heterozygous Mutations in the HNF4A Gene. PLoS Med., 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0040118"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2019.00148","article-title":"The Central Role of Glucokinase in Glucose Homeostasis: A Perspective 50 Years After Demonstrating the Presence of the Enzyme in Islets of Langerhans","volume":"10","author":"Matschinsky","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kirzhner, A., Barak, O., Vaisbuch, E., Zornitzki, T., and Schiller, T. (2022). The Challenges of Treating Glucokinase MODY during Pregnancy: A Review of Maternal and Fetal Outcomes. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19105980"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.2337\/db14-0877","article-title":"New Insights Into Gestational Glucose Metabolism: Lessons Learned From 21st Century Approaches","volume":"64","author":"Angueira","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1383","DOI":"10.2337\/dc14-2769","article-title":"Recognition and Management of Individuals With Hyperglycemia Because of a Heterozygous Glucokinase Mutation","volume":"38","author":"Chakera","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gene.2014.06.062","article-title":"Elevated CpG island methylation of GCK gene predicts the risk of type 2 diabetes in Chinese males","volume":"547","author":"Tang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Gene"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2013.283980","article-title":"Prevalence of Vascular Complications Among Patients With Glucokinase Mutations and Prolonged, Mild Hyperglycemia","volume":"311","author":"Steele","year":"2014","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-04756-4","article-title":"Maternal inheritance of glucose intolerance via oocyte TET3 insufficiency","volume":"605","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-013-3075-x","article-title":"Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies suggest pharmacological treatment used in patients with glucokinase mutations does not alter glycaemia","volume":"57","author":"Stride","year":"2014","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1346","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2011-0268","article-title":"Clinical Characteristics and Diagnostic Criteria of Maturity-Onset Diabetes Of The Young (MODY) due to Molecular Anomalies of the HNF1A Gene","volume":"96","author":"Carette","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1751","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.28.7.1751","article-title":"Beta-cell dysfunction, insulin sensitivity, and glycosuria precede diabetes in hepatocyte nuclear factor-1alpha mutation carriers","volume":"28","author":"Stride","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ebrahim, N., Shakirova, K., and Dashinimaev, E. (2022). PDX1 is the cornerstone of pancreatic \u03b2-cell functions and identity. Front. Mol. Biosci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmolb.2022.1091757"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1011187","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.1011187","article-title":"Regulation of Pdx1 by oxidative stress and Nrf2 in pancreatic beta-cells","volume":"13","author":"Scott","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2018.05.010","article-title":"Altered expression of PGC-1 \u03b1 and PDX1 and their methylation status are associated with fetal glucose metabolism in gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"501","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1343","DOI":"10.1002\/med.21878","article-title":"Epigenetic modifications in pancreas development, diabetes, and therapeutics","volume":"42","author":"Kaimala","year":"2022","journal-title":"Med. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1400","DOI":"10.1039\/C6TX00047A","article-title":"Epigenetic disruption and glucose homeostasis changes following low-dose maternal bisphenol A exposure","volume":"5","author":"Chang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Toxicol. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1436","DOI":"10.2337\/dc16-2462","article-title":"Diabetes, Associated Clinical Spectrum, Long-term Prognosis, and Genotype\/Phenotype Correlations in 201 Adult Patients With Hepatocyte Nuclear Factor 1B","volume":"40","author":"Cornu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1102","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.27.5.1102","article-title":"Contrasting diabetes phenotypes associated with hepatocyte nuclear factor-1alpha and -1beta mutations","volume":"27","author":"Pearson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-5491.2006.01999.x","article-title":"Hepatocyte nuclear factor-1 beta mutations cause neonatal diabetes and intrauterine growth retardation: Support for a critical role of HNF-1\u03b2 in human pancreatic development","volume":"23","author":"Edghill","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.2337\/db18-1151","article-title":"Insulin Therapy for Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Does Not Fully Protect Offspring From Diet-Induced Metabolic Disorders","volume":"68","author":"Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1111\/1753-0407.13403","article-title":"Developmental origins of diabetes mellitus: Environmental epigenomics and emerging patterns","volume":"15","author":"Zhu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-011-2319-x","article-title":"Heterozygous ABCC8 mutations are a cause of MODY","volume":"55","author":"Bowman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"908152","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/908152","article-title":"KCNJ11: Genetic Polymorphisms and Risk of Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"2015","author":"Haghvirdizadeh","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.2478\/bjmg-2020-0027","article-title":"Genetic spectrum of neonatal diabetes","volume":"23","author":"Kocova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Balk. J. Med. Genet."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"157","article-title":"Study of kcnj11 gene mutations in association with monogenic diabetes of infancy and response to sulfonylurea treatment in a cohort study in Egypt","volume":"12","author":"Madani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van Otterdijk, S.D., Binder, A.M., Szic, K.S.V., Schwald, J., and Michels, K.B. (2017). DNA methylation of candidate genes in peripheral blood from patients with type 2 diabetes or the metabolic syndrome. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0180955"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1186\/s13148-020-00896-4","article-title":"The role of DNA methylation in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"12","author":"Ahmed","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Epigenet."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1457","DOI":"10.1038\/ijo.2014.30","article-title":"DNA methylation of leptin and adiponectin promoters in children is reduced by the combined presence of obesity and insulin resistance","volume":"38","author":"Huang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, P., Dong, S., Wu, L., Bai, Y., Bi, X., Li, Y., and Shu, C. (2023). Maternal and Placental DNA Methylation Changes Associated with the Pathogenesis of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15010070"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1272","DOI":"10.2337\/db11-1160","article-title":"Placental Adiponectin Gene DNA Methylation Levels Are Associated With Mothers\u2019 Blood Glucose Concentration","volume":"61","author":"Bouchard","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2014.06.037","article-title":"Maternal obesity and gestational diabetes are associated with placental leptin DNA methylation","volume":"211","author":"Lesseur","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2436","DOI":"10.2337\/dc10-1024","article-title":"Leptin Gene Epigenetic Adaptation to Impaired Glucose Metabolism During Pregnancy","volume":"33","author":"Bouchard","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u0142uski, D.F., Woli\u0144ska, E., and Skrzypczak, M. (2021). Epigenetic Changes in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22147649"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1007\/s42000-019-00111-x","article-title":"Methylation profile of genes involved in inflammation, in the blood from pregnancies with maternal preeclampsia due to untreated gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"18","author":"Halvatsiotis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hormones"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2018.00222","article-title":"Association of Interleukin-10 Methylation Levels With Gestational Diabetes in a Taiwanese Population","volume":"9","author":"Kang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Genet."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1089\/dna.2017.4005","article-title":"Functional Defects of Regulatory T Cell Through Interleukin 10 Mediated Mechanism in the Induction of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"37","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"DNA Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7019597","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/7019597","article-title":"Regulation and Mechanism of miR-518d through the PPAR\u03b1-Mediated NF-\u03baB Pathway in the Development of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"2020","author":"Qiu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valencia-Ortega, J., Saucedo, R., S\u00e1nchez-Rodr\u00edguez, M.A., Cruz-Dur\u00e1n, J.G., and Mart\u00ednez, E.G.R. (2021). Epigenetic Alterations Related to Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22179462"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2416","DOI":"10.1111\/bph.14631","article-title":"Adrenoceptors in white, brown, and brite adipocytes","volume":"176","author":"Evans","year":"2019","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ijo.0801039","article-title":"The tissue distribution of the human beta3-adrenoceptor studied using a monoclonal antibody: Direct evidence of the beta3-adrenoceptor in human adipose tissue, atrium and skeletal muscle","volume":"23","author":"Chamberlain","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-6147(96)80011-3","article-title":"Function and regulation of the beta 3-adrenoceptor","volume":"17","author":"Strosberg","year":"1996","journal-title":"Trends Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1023\/B:REMD.0000021437.46773.26","article-title":"Candidate Genes for Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"5","author":"Parikh","year":"2004","journal-title":"Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1677\/jme.0.0270133","article-title":"Pancreatic beta-cells expressing the Arg64 variant of the beta(3)-adrenergic receptor exhibit abnormal insulin secretory activity","volume":"27","author":"Perfetti","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Mol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pilch, W., Piotrowska, A., Wyrostek, J., Czerwi\u0144ska-Ledwig, O., Ziemann, E., Antosiewicz, J., Zasada, M., Kulesa-Mrowiecka, M., and \u017bychowska, M. (2022). Different Changes in Adipokines, Lipid Profile, and TNF-Alpha Levels between 10 and 20 Whole Body Cryostimulation Sessions in Individuals with I and II Degrees of Obesity. Biomedicines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines10020269"},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"4019","article-title":"Insulin response to glucose is lower in individuals homozygous for the Arg 64 variant of the beta-3-adrenergic receptor","volume":"85","author":"Walston","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"708139","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2021.708139","article-title":"The Association of Trp64Arg Polymorphism in the Beta-Adrenergic Receptor With Insulin Resistance: Meta-Analysis","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1005630912875","article-title":"A serine\/alanine polymorphism in the nucleotide-binding fold-2 of the sulphonylurea receptor-1 (S1369A) is associated with enhanced glucose-induced insulin secretion during pregnancy","volume":"23","author":"Krugluger","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Inherit. Metab. Dis."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"1695","article-title":"Trp64Arg polymorphism of the beta3-adrenergic receptor gene in pregnancy: Association with mild gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"84","author":"Festa","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.23.8.1079","article-title":"Study of the Trp64Arg polymorphism of the beta3-adrenergic receptor in Greek women with gestational diabetes","volume":"23","author":"Alevizaki","year":"2000","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1093\/humupd\/dmt013","article-title":"Genetic variants and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: A systematic review","volume":"19","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod. Update"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C319","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.1994.266.2.C319","article-title":"The insulin receptor: Structure, function, and signaling","volume":"266","author":"Lee","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.2174\/092986707780059643","article-title":"Genetics of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"14","author":"Shaat","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2018-01659","article-title":"Reduced Insulin Receptor Expression and Altered DNA Methylation in Fat Tissues and Blood of Women With GDM and Offspring","volume":"104","author":"Ott","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lowe, W.L. (2023). Genetics and Epigenetics: Implications for the Life Course of Gestational Diabetes. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24076047"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, Y., Chen, L., Song, B., Cui, Z., Chen, G., and Yu, Z. (2022). Insulin-like Growth Factor-2 (IGF-2) in Fibrosis. Biomolecules, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom12111557"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1002\/gepi.1370060502","article-title":"Increased risk for gestational diabetes mellitus associated with insulin receptor and insulin-like growth factor II restriction fragment length polymorphisms","volume":"6","author":"Ober","year":"1989","journal-title":"Genet. Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2565","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-012-2644-8","article-title":"Regulation of insulin sensitivity by serine\/threonine phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate proteins IRS1 and IRS2","volume":"55","author":"Copps","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s13098-023-00980-8","article-title":"Biochemical and molecular biomarkers: Unraveling their role in gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"15","author":"Karami","year":"2023","journal-title":"Diabetol. Metab. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E881","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00649.2009","article-title":"Progesterone inhibits glucose uptake by affecting diverse steps of insulin signaling in 3T3-L1 adipocytes","volume":"298","author":"Wada","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1144","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2003-1297","article-title":"Human Placental Growth Hormone Increases Expression of the P85 Regulatory Unit of Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase and Triggers Severe Insulin Resistance in Skeletal Muscle","volume":"145","author":"Barbour","year":"2004","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1320","DOI":"10.7150\/ijms.26774","article-title":"Estrogen Receptor 1 (ESR1) Enhances","volume":"15","author":"Campello","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Med Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2021.04.011","article-title":"miR-335-5p aggravates type 2 diabetes by inhibiting SLC2A4 expression","volume":"558","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.2217\/pgs.13.45","article-title":"SLC2A4 gene: A promising target for pharmacogenomics of insulin resistance","volume":"14","author":"Machado","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pharmacogenomics"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, S., Ma, S., Li, X., Tian, Z., Liang, H., Yan, J., Chen, M., and Tan, H. (2019). Relationships of SLC2A4, RBP4, PCK1, and PI3K Gene Polymorphisms with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in a Chinese Population. BioMed Res. Int., 2019.","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/7398063"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.3109\/09513590.2014.958994","article-title":"Body mass index associated to rs2021966 ENPP1 polymorphism increases the risk for gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"31","author":"Tarquini","year":"2015","journal-title":"Gynecol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9030","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.03385-12","article-title":"Prototype Foamy Virus Bet Impairs the Dimerization and Cytosolic Solubility of Human APOBEC3G","volume":"87","author":"Vasudevan","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1098","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2004.07.126","article-title":"Calpain-related diseases","volume":"322","author":"Branca","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1023\/B:MCBI.0000028750.78760.6f","article-title":"Role of calpains in diabetes mellitus-induced cataractogenesis: A mini review","volume":"261","author":"Biswas","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/S1471-4914(01)02049-4","article-title":"The calpain family and human disease","volume":"7","author":"Huang","year":"2001","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.578","article-title":"Calpain-10: From genome search to function","volume":"21","author":"Turner","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabetes\/Metab. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shang, L., Huang, J.-F., Ding, W., Chen, S., Xue, L.-X., Ma, R.-F., and Xiong, K. (2014). Calpain: A molecule to induce AIF-mediated necroptosis in RGC-5 following elevated hydrostatic pressure. BMC Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2202-15-63"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jalz.2014.06.003","article-title":"Increased cerebrospinal fluid calpain activity and microparticle levels in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"11","author":"Laske","year":"2015","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e22615","DOI":"10.1002\/jcla.22615","article-title":"The SNP43 (G\/A) polymorphism in CAPN10 gene confers an increased risk of cognitive impairment in cerebral small vessel disease","volume":"32","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lab. Anal."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1136","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.110.010512","article-title":"Calpain-10 interacts with plasma saturated fatty acid concentrations to influence insulin resistance in individuals with the metabolic syndrome","volume":"93","author":"Ferguson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ono, Y., Doi, N., Shindo, M., P\u00e1nico, P., and Salazar, A.M. (2022). Cryptic splicing events result in unexpected protein products from calpain-10 (CAPN10) cDNA. Biochim. Biophys. Acta Mol. Cell Res., 1869.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbamcr.2021.119188"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5825","DOI":"10.1242\/jcs.02689","article-title":"Histone acetylation increases chromatin accessibility","volume":"118","author":"Wachsmuth","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Cell Sci."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1038\/jhg.2013.66","article-title":"Histone modifications for human epigenome analysis","volume":"58","author":"Kimura","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1681.2006.04362.x","article-title":"Exercise and skeletal muscle glucose transporter 4 expression: Molecular mechanisms","volume":"33","author":"McGee","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605163","DOI":"10.1155\/2010\/605163","article-title":"The Possible Role of Epigenetics in Gestational Diabetes: Cause, Consequence, or Both","volume":"2010","author":"Fraga","year":"2010","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol. Int."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2396","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2015-4206","article-title":"Epigenetic markers to predict conversion from gestational diabetes to type 2 diabetes","volume":"101","author":"Michalczyk","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hepp, P., Hutter, S., Knabl, J., Hofmann, S., Kuhn, C., Mahner, S., and Jeschke, U. (2018). Histone H3 lysine 9 acetylation is downregulated in GDM Placentas and Calcitriol supplementation enhanced this effect. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19124061"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.2147\/DMSO.S330323","article-title":"MicroRNAs and Exosomal microRNAs May Be Possible Targets to Investigate in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"15","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Syndr. Obes."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, C., Dong, J., Jiang, T., Shi, Z., Yu, B., Zhu, Y., Chen, D., Xu, J., Huo, R., and Dai, J. (2011). Early Second-Trimester Serum MiRNA Profiling Predicts Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0023925"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R247","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-16-1017","article-title":"MECHANISMS IN ENDOCRINOLOGY: Epigenetic modifications and gestational diabetes: A systematic review of published literature","volume":"176","author":"Moen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"da Silva, P.H.C.M., Santos, K.F., da Silva, L., da Costa, C.C.P., Santos, R.D.S., and Reis, A.A.D.S. (2023). MicroRNAs Associated with the Pathophysiological Mechanisms of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review for Building a Panel of miRNAs. J. Pers. Med., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm13071126"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kwon, D.-N., Chang, B.-S., and Kim, J.-H. (2014). MicroRNA Dysregulation in Liver and Pancreas of CMP-Neu5Ac Hydroxylase Null Mice Disrupts Insulin\/PI3K-AKT Signaling. BioMed Res. Int., 2014.","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/236385"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"908","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-57838-6","article-title":"Circulating miR-330-3p in Late Pregnancy is Associated with Pregnancy Outcomes Among Lean Women with GDM","volume":"10","author":"Pfeiffer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijgo.2015.01.010","article-title":"Profiling maternal plasma microRNA expression in early pregnancy to predict gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"130","author":"Zhu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1007\/s40291-018-0325-0","article-title":"Decreased Expression of Circulating miR-20a-5p in South African Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"22","author":"Pheiffer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Diagn. Ther."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1982","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2013-2046","article-title":"Differential Expression of MicroRNAs in Omental Adipose Tissue From Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Subjects Reveals miR-222 as a Regulator of ER\u03b1 Expression in Estrogen-Induced Insulin Resistance","volume":"155","author":"Shi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Filardi, T., Catanzaro, G., Grieco, G.E., Splendiani, E., Trocchianesi, S., Santangelo, C., Brunelli, R., Guarino, E., Sebastiani, G., and Dotta, F. (2022). Identification and Validation of miR-222-3p and miR-409-3p as Plasma Biomarkers in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Sharing Validated Target Genes Involved in Metabolic Homeostasis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23084276"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4734","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2008-1629","article-title":"Hsa-miR-222 is involved in differentiation of endometrial stromal cells in vitro","volume":"150","author":"Qian","year":"2009","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1770","DOI":"10.1002\/bdr2.2254","article-title":"High glucose-increased miR-200c contributes to cellular senescence and DNA damage in neural stem cells","volume":"115","author":"Dong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Birth Defects Res."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, M.M., Wei, J., Xu, L.L., Yan, Y.S., Chen, Y., Lv, M., Jiang, Y., and Luo, Q. (2023). Altered expression of long noncoding RNA MEG3 in the offspring of gestational diabetes mellitus induces impaired glucose tolerance in adulthood. Acta Diabetol., 1\u201312.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00592-023-02169-x"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1097337","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2023.1097337","article-title":"Prospecting of exosomal-miRNA signatures as prognostic marker for gestational diabetes mellitus and other adverse pregnancy outcomes","volume":"14","author":"Mitra","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/24\/23\/16619\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:27:19Z","timestamp":1760131639000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/24\/23\/16619"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,22]]},"references-count":115,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms242316619"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms242316619","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,22]]}}}