{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,10]],"date-time":"2026-10-10T14:58:14Z","timestamp":1791644294866,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,30]],"date-time":"2023-11-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1701302400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003725","name":"National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NRF-2021R1C1C2007132"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2021R1C1C2007132"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003725","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Neuromuscular diseases (NMDs) are a genetically or clinically heterogeneous group of diseases that involve injury or dysfunction of neuromuscular tissue components, including peripheral motor neurons, skeletal muscles, and neuromuscular junctions. To study NMDs and develop potential therapies, remarkable progress has been made in generating in vitro neuromuscular models using engineering approaches to recapitulate the complex physical and biochemical microenvironments of 3D human neuromuscular tissues. In this review, we discuss recent studies focusing on the development of in vitro co-culture models of human motor neurons and skeletal muscles, with the pros and cons of each approach. Furthermore, we explain how neuromuscular in vitro models recapitulate certain aspects of specific NMDs, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and muscular dystrophy. Research on neuromuscular organoids (NMO) will continue to co-develop to better mimic tissues in vivo and will provide a better understanding of the development of the neuromuscular tissue, mechanisms of NMD action, and tools applicable to preclinical studies, including drug screening and toxicity tests.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms242317006","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,30]],"date-time":"2023-11-30T09:39:12Z","timestamp":1701337152000},"page":"17006","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Advancements in 2D and 3D In Vitro Models for Studying Neuromuscular Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Haneul","family":"Kim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52828, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7048-458X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gon Sup","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute of Life Science, College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52828, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6011-2555","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sang-Hwan","family":"Hyun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Veterinary Embryology and Biotechnology, Veterinary Medical Center and College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Republic of Korea"},{"name":"Institute for Stem Cell & Regenerative Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Chengju 28644, Republic of Korea"},{"name":"Graduate School of Veterinary Biosecurity and Protection, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5102-6794","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eunhye","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52828, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1097\/JCN.0b013e318197a6a5","article-title":"Introduction to stem cell therapy","volume":"24","author":"Biehl","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. 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