{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:48:47Z","timestamp":1787028527888,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":164,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,12]],"date-time":"2023-12-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1702339200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the Austrian Science Fund (FWF)","award":["P32340"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P32340"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Salmonids are affected by the economically significant whirling disease (WD) caused by the myxozoan parasite Myxobolus cerebralis. In the past, it was endemic to Eurasia, but it has now spread to different regions of North America, Europe, New Zealand, and South Africa. Among salmonids, rainbow trout is considered the most highly susceptible host. Upon entering to the host\u2019s body, the parasite invades the spine and cranium, resulting in whirling behaviour, a blackened tail, and destruction of cartilage. The disease is characterized by the infiltration of numerous inflammatory cells, primarily lymphocytes and macrophages, with the onset of fibrous tissue infiltration. Several efforts have been undertaken to investigate the role of various immune modulatory molecules and immune regulatory genes using advanced molecular methods including flow cytometry and transcriptional techniques. Investigation of the molecular and cellular responses, the role of STAT3 in Th17 cell differentiation, and the inhibitory actions of suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) on interferons and interleukins, as well as the role of natural resistance-associated macrophage proteins (Nramp) in WD have significantly contributed to our understanding of the immune regulation mechanism in salmonids against M. cerebralis. This review thoroughly highlights previous research and discusses potential future directions for understanding the molecular immune response of salmonids and the possible development of prophylactic approaches against WD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms242417392","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,12]],"date-time":"2023-12-12T05:23:22Z","timestamp":1702358602000},"page":"17392","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["The Immune Response to the Myxozoan Parasite Myxobolus cerebralis in Salmonids: A Review on Whirling Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Naveed","family":"Akram","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Fish Health, Department of Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8148-0218","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mansour","family":"El-Matbouli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Fish Health, Department of Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9273-1502","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mona","family":"Saleh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Fish Health, Department of Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Bianchi, M.C.G., Camilleri, M., Chopin, F., Farme, T., Franz, N., Fuentevilla, C., Garibaldi, L., Grainger, R., Hishamunda, N., and Jara, F. 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