{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T02:46:57Z","timestamp":1760150817467,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,23]],"date-time":"2023-12-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1703289600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Polish Ministry of Education and Science","award":["SKN\/SP\/533486\/2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SKN\/SP\/533486\/2022"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bladder cancer is a common malignancy associated with high recurrence rates and potential progression to invasive forms. Sorafenib, a multi-targeted tyrosine kinase inhibitor, has shown promise in anti-cancer therapy, but its cytotoxicity to normal cells and aggregation in solution limits its clinical application. To address these challenges, we investigated the formation of supramolecular aggregates of sorafenib with Congo red (CR), a bis-azo dye known for its supramolecular interaction. We analyzed different mole ratios of CR-sorafenib aggregates and evaluated their effects on bladder cancer cells of varying levels of malignancy. In addition, we also evaluated the effect of the test compounds on normal uroepithelial cells. Our results demonstrated that sorafenib inhibits the proliferation of bladder cancer cells and induces apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner. However, high concentrations of sorafenib also showed cytotoxicity to normal uroepithelial cells. In contrast, the CR-BAY aggregates exhibited reduced cytotoxicity to normal cells while maintaining anti-cancer activity. The aggregates inhibited cancer cell migration and invasion, suggesting their potential for metastasis prevention. Dynamic light scattering and UV-VIS measurements confirmed the formation of stable co-aggregates with distinctive spectral properties. These CR-sorafenib aggregates may provide a promising approach to targeted therapy with reduced cytotoxicity and improved stability for drug delivery in bladder cancer treatment. This work shows that the drug-excipient aggregates proposed and described so far, as Congo red\u2014sorafenib, can be a real step forward in anti-cancer therapies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25010269","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,24]],"date-time":"2023-12-24T20:44:15Z","timestamp":1703450655000},"page":"269","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Potential of Congo Red Supplied Aggregates of Multitargeted Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor (Sorafenib, BAY-43-9006) in Enhancing Therapeutic Impact on Bladder Cancer"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3293-8568","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ma\u0142gorzata","family":"Lasota","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Chair of Medical Biochemistry, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Kopernika 7, 31-034 Krakow, Poland"},{"name":"SSG of Targeted Therapy and Supramolecular Systems, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Kopernika 7, 31-034 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7150-0649","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel","family":"Jankowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SSG of Targeted Therapy and Supramolecular Systems, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Kopernika 7, 31-034 Krakow, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Physical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7370-9879","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Wi\u015bniewska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chair of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Grzeg\u00f3rzecka 16, 31-531 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9306-7965","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Micha\u0142","family":"Sarna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2592-7676","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Kaczor-Kami\u0144ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chair of Medical Biochemistry, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Kopernika 7, 31-034 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Misterka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chair of Medical Biochemistry, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Kopernika 7, 31-034 Krakow, Poland"},{"name":"SSG of Targeted Therapy and Supramolecular Systems, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Kopernika 7, 31-034 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-4647-9274","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mateusz","family":"Szczepaniak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SSG of Targeted Therapy and Supramolecular Systems, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Kopernika 7, 31-034 Krakow, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6376-496X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joanna","family":"Duli\u0144ska-Litewka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chair of Medical Biochemistry, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Kopernika 7, 31-034 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4159-447X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrzej","family":"G\u00f3recki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euo.2022.10.003","article-title":"Epidemiology, Screening, and Prevention of Bladder Cancer","volume":"5","author":"Lobo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. 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