{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T05:33:38Z","timestamp":1790660018772,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,4]],"date-time":"2024-01-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704326400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cluster of differentiation 19 (CD19) chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells are a highly effective immunotherapy for relapsed and refractory B-cell malignancies, but their utility can be limited by the development of immune effector cell-associated neurotoxicity syndrome (ICANS). The recent discovery of CD19 expression on the pericytes in the blood\u2013brain barrier (BBB) suggests an important off-target mechanism for ICANS development. In addition, the release of systemic cytokines stimulated by the engagement of CD19 with the CAR T cells can cause endothelial activation and decreased expression of tight junction molecules, further damaging the integrity of the BBB. Once within the brain microenvironment, cytokines trigger a cytokine-specific cascade of neuroinflammatory responses, which manifest clinically as a spectrum of neurological changes. Brain imaging is frequently negative or nonspecific, and treatment involves close neurologic monitoring, supportive care, interleukin antagonists, and steroids. The goal of this review is to inform readers about the normal development and microstructure of the BBB, its unique susceptibility to CD19 CAR T cells, the role of individual cytokines on specific elements of the brain\u2019s microstructural environment, and the clinical and imaging manifestations of ICANS. Our review will link cellular pathophysiology with the clinical and radiological manifestations of a complex clinical entity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25010644","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,4]],"date-time":"2024-01-04T05:23:30Z","timestamp":1704345810000},"page":"644","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["The Mechanisms of Altered Blood\u2013Brain Barrier Permeability in CD19 CAR T\u2013Cell Recipients"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Soniya N.","family":"Pinto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic Imaging, St. Jude Children\u2019s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4335-0644","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giedre","family":"Krenciute","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bone Marrow Transplantation & Cellular Therapy, St. Jude Children\u2019s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1186\/2162-3619-1-36","article-title":"CD19: A biomarker for B cell development, lymphoma diagnosis and therapy","volume":"1","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Exp. 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