{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,9]],"date-time":"2026-04-09T20:21:19Z","timestamp":1775766079389,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":117,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,13]],"date-time":"2024-01-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1705104000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA)","award":["80NSSC21K0544"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NSSC21K0544"]}]},{"name":"National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA)","award":["80NSSC20M0110"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NSSC20M0110"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008198","name":"LaSPACE","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["80NSSC21K0544"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NSSC21K0544"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008198","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008198","name":"LaSPACE","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["80NSSC20M0110"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NSSC20M0110"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008198","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Astronauts in space are subject to continuous exposure to ionizing radiation. There is concern about the acute and late-occurring adverse health effects that astronauts could incur following a protracted exposure to the space radiation environment. Therefore, it is vital to consider the current tools and models used to describe and study the organic consequences of ionizing radiation exposure. It is equally important to see where these models could be improved. Historically, radiobiological models focused on how radiation damages nuclear deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and the role DNA repair mechanisms play in resulting biological effects, building on the hypotheses of Crowther and Lea from the 1940s and 1960s, and they neglected other subcellular targets outside of nuclear DNA. The development of these models and the current state of knowledge about radiation effects impacting astronauts in orbit, as well as how the radiation environment and cellular microenvironment are incorporated into these radiobiological models, aid our understanding of the influence space travel may have on astronaut health. It is vital to consider the current tools and models used to describe the organic consequences of ionizing radiation exposure and identify where they can be further improved.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25021015","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,15]],"date-time":"2024-01-15T04:03:26Z","timestamp":1705291406000},"page":"1015","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["A Review of Numerical Models of Radiation Injury and Repair Considering Subcellular Targets and the Extracellular Microenvironment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Nousha","family":"Afshari","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics and Astronomy, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4090-7008","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Igor","family":"Koturbash","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Fay W. Boozman College of Public Health, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2249-5203","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marjan","family":"Boerma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Radiation Health, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wayne","family":"Newhauser","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics and Astronomy, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Maria","family":"Kratz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jeffrey","family":"Willey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Oncology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jacqueline","family":"Williams","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jeffery","family":"Chancellor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics and Astronomy, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA"},{"name":"Department of Preventive Medicine and Population Health, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA"},{"name":"Outer Space Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1038\/s41526-018-0043-2","article-title":"Limitations in predicting the space radiation health risk for exploration astronauts","volume":"4","author":"Chancellor","year":"2018","journal-title":"Npj Microgravity"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Hall, E., and Giaccia, A. 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