{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T00:47:34Z","timestamp":1787532454191,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,6]],"date-time":"2024-02-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1707177600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, recently re-named metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic fatty liver disease, is considered the most prevalent liver disease worldwide. Its molecular initiation events are multiple and not always well-defined, comprising insulin resistance, chronic low-grade inflammation, gut dysbiosis, and mitochondrial dysfunction, all of them acting on genetic and epigenetic grounds. Nowadays, there is a growing public health threat, which is antibiotic excessive use and misuse. This widespread use of antibiotics not only in humans, but also in animals has led to the presence of residues in derived foods, such as milk and dairy products. Furthermore, antibiotics have been used for many decades to control certain bacterial diseases in high-value fruit and vegetables. Recently, it has been emphasised that antibiotic-induced changes in microbial composition reduce microbial diversity and alter the functional attributes of the microbiota. These antibiotic residues impact human gut flora, setting in motion a chain of events that leads straight to various metabolic alterations that can ultimately contribute to the onset and progression of NAFLD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25041993","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,6]],"date-time":"2024-02-06T12:38:24Z","timestamp":1707223104000},"page":"1993","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Could Adverse Effects of Antibiotics Due to Their Use\/Misuse Be Linked to Some Mechanisms Related to Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7751-2715","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giovanni","family":"Tarantino","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, Medical School of Naples, Federico II University, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vincenzo","family":"Citro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of General Medicine, Umberto I Hospital, Nocera Inferiore (SA), 84014 Nocera Inferiore, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"e54","article-title":"Can we use old NAFLD data under the new MASLD definition?","volume":"79","author":"Song","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Younossi, Z.M., Alqahtani, S.A., Alswat, K., Yilmaz, Y., Keklikkiran, C., Funuyet-Salas, J., Romero-G\u00f3mez, M., Fan, J.G., Zheng, M.H., and El-Kassas, M. (2023). Global survey of stigma among physicians and patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. J. Hepatol., in press.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2023.11.004"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caputo, V., Tarantino, G., Santini, S.J., Fracassi, G., and Balsano, C. (2023). The Role of Epigenetic Control of Mitochondrial (Dys)Function in MASLD Onset and Progression. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15224757"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2050312117745223","DOI":"10.1177\/2050312117745223","article-title":"Association between smoking and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"6","author":"Shirazinia","year":"2018","journal-title":"SAGE Open Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tarantino, G., Citro, V., and Cataldi, M. (2021). Findings from Studies Are Congruent with Obesity Having a Viral Origin, but What about Obesity-Related NAFLD?. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13071285"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1002\/cld.1183","article-title":"Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: The Role of Visceral Adipose Tissue","volume":"19","author":"Hanlon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Liver Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"1","article-title":"The roles of type 2 diabetes and obesity in disease activity and progression of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease\/nonalcoholic steatohepatitis","volume":"40","author":"Shinde","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Res. Opin."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2015.02.051","article-title":"Sarcopaenia is associated with NAFLD independently of obesity and insulin resistance: Nationwide surveys (KNHANES 2008-2011)","volume":"63","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kosmalski, M., \u015aliwi\u0144ska, A., and Drzewoski, J. (2023). Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease or Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus\u2014The Chicken or the Egg Dilemma. Biomedicines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines11041097"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102003","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinre.2022.102003","article-title":"NAFLD: Genetics and its clinical implications","volume":"46","author":"Sharma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Res. Hepatol. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petrescu, M., Vlaicu, S.I., Cium\u0103rnean, L., Milaciu, M.V., M\u0103rginean, C., Florea, M., Vesa, \u0218.C., and Popa, M. (2022). Chronic Inflammation-A Link between Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) and Dysfunctional Adipose Tissue. Medicina, 58.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina58050641"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kitade, H., Chen, G., Ni, Y., and Ota, T. (2017). Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Insulin Resistance: New Insights and Potential New Treatments. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9040387"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1586\/egh.09.32","article-title":"Lipotoxicity in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: Not all lipids are created equal","volume":"3","author":"Alkhouri","year":"2009","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4773","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v16.i38.4773","article-title":"Hepatic steatosis, low-grade chronic inflammation and hormone\/growth factor\/adipokine imbalance","volume":"16","author":"Tarantino","year":"2010","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.3109\/10715762.2015.1078461","article-title":"Endoplasmic reticulum stress and Oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"49","author":"Ashraf","year":"2015","journal-title":"Free Radic. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.7150\/ijbs.56214","article-title":"Understanding the Effects of Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis on Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and the Possible Probiotics Role: Recent Updates","volume":"17","author":"Khan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, J., Hu, Y., and Peng, J. (2021). Targeting programmed cell death in metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD): A promising new therapy. Cell Mol. Biol. Lett., 26.","DOI":"10.1186\/s11658-021-00254-z"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.21037\/tgh-20-125","article-title":"Mitochondrial dysfunction in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and alcohol related liver disease","volume":"6","author":"Prasun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transl. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmet.2020.101119","article-title":"Nuclear receptors and transcriptional regulation in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"50","author":"Xiao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v19.i6.802","article-title":"What is the role of adiponectin in obesity related non-alcoholic fatty liver disease?","volume":"19","author":"Finelli","year":"2013","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2015.07.020","article-title":"Glucocorticoids and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"154","author":"Woods","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm3352","article-title":"Axis of ageing: Telomeres, p53 and mitochondria","volume":"13","author":"Sahin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pathol-012615-044224","article-title":"Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: Pathogenesis and Disease Spectrum","volume":"11","author":"Hardy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, L., Li, D., Ma, Y., Cui, F., Wang, J., and Tian, Y. (2023). The association between telomere length and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: A prospective study. BMC Med., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-023-03136-7"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1920","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2014.3289","article-title":"Antibiotic Misuse: A Global Crisis","volume":"174","author":"Bell","year":"2014","journal-title":"JAMA Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yin, X., Gong, Y., Sun, N., Li, D., Wu, J., Wang, J., Qiu, L., and Li, H. (2022). Prevalence of inappropriate use behaviors of antibiotics and related factors among chinese antibiotic users: An online cross-sectional survey. BMC Infect. Dis., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-022-07671-1"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2023, November 27). Health Experts Establish Targets to Improve Hospital Antibiotic Prescribing. Available online: https:\/\/www.pewtrusts.org\/en\/research-and-analysis\/reports\/2021\/03\/health-experts-establish-targets-to-improve-hospital-antibiotic-prescribing."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annemergmed.2007.03.026","article-title":"Antibiotic use for emergency department patients with upper respiratory infections: Prescribing practices, patient expectations, and patient satisfaction","volume":"50","author":"Ong","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ann. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1066","DOI":"10.1097\/MLR.0000000000000440","article-title":"Antibiotic Use in Cold and Flu Season and Prescribing Quality: A Retrospective Cohort Study","volume":"53","author":"Alsan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Med. Care"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Samtiya, M., Matthews, K.R., Dhewa, T., and Puniya, A.K. (2022). Antimicrobial Resistance in the Food Chain: Trends, Mechanisms, Pathways, and Possible Regulation Strategies. Foods, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods11192966"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.5455\/javar.2019.f350","article-title":"Antibiotic residues in milk: Past, present, and future","volume":"6","author":"Sachi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Adv. Vet. Anim. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2015.467-471","article-title":"Antibiotic residues in milk and eggs of commercial and local farms at Chittagong, Bangladesh","volume":"8","author":"Chowdhury","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110649","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2022.110649","article-title":"Acute and persistent effects of commonly used antibiotics on the gut microbiome and resistome in healthy adults","volume":"39","author":"Anthony","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2019.10.011","article-title":"Recovery of the Gut Microbiota after Antibiotics Depends on Host Diet, Community Context, and Environmental Reservoirs","volume":"26","author":"Ng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S77-84","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/civ137","article-title":"Determining the Long-term Effect of Antibiotic Administration on the Human Normal Intestinal Microbiota Using Culture and Pyrosequencing Methods","volume":"60","author":"Rashid","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4554","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1000087107","article-title":"Incomplete recovery and individualized responses of the human distal gut microbiota to repeated antibiotic perturbation","volume":"108","author":"Dethlefsen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3216","DOI":"10.1099\/mic.0.040618-0","article-title":"Long-term impacts of antibiotic exposure on the human intestinal microbiota","volume":"156","author":"Jernberg","year":"2010","journal-title":"Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patangia, D.V., Anthony Ryan, C., Dempsey, E., Paul Ross, R., and Stanton, C. (2022). Impact of antibiotics on the human microbiome and consequences for host health. Microbiologyopen, 11.","DOI":"10.1002\/mbo3.1260"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2014.03.011","article-title":"Role of the microbiota in immunity and inflammation","volume":"157","author":"Belkaid","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2245","article-title":"What are the consequences of the disappearing human microbiota?","volume":"7","author":"Blaser","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2014.210","article-title":"Antibiotics in early life and obesity","volume":"11","author":"Cox","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2024, January 02). Normal Flora, Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK7617."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1022","DOI":"10.1038\/4441022a","article-title":"Microbial ecology: Human gut microbes associated with obesity","volume":"444","author":"Ley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2397","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.14-265983","article-title":"Alteration of gut microbiota by vancomycin and bacitracin improves insulin resistance via glucagon-like peptide 1 in diet-induced obesity","volume":"29","author":"Hwang","year":"2015","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1007\/s13679-021-00438-w","article-title":"Do Antibiotics Cause Obesity through Long-Term Alterations in the Gut Microbiome? A Review of Current Evidence","volume":"10","author":"Vallianou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Obes. Rep."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Konstantinidis, T., Tsigalou, C., Karvelas, A., Stavropoulou, E., Voidarou, C., and Bezirtzoglou, E. (2020). Effects of Antibiotics upon the Gut Microbiome: A Review of the Literature. Biomedicines, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines8110502"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2022.106570","article-title":"Antibiotic-induced gut microbiota depletion exacerbates host hypercholesterolemia","volume":"187","author":"Kappel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tayyeb, J.Z., Popeijus, H.E., Mensink, R.P., Konings, M.C.J.M., Mulders, K.H.R., and Plat, J. (2019). Amoxicillin Modulates ApoA-I Transcription and Secretion, Predominantly via PPAR\u03b1 Transactivation Inhibition. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20235967"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacl.2015.11.017","article-title":"The associations between apolipoprotein B, A1, and the B\/A1 ratio and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in both normal-weight and overweight Korean population","volume":"10","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4709300","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/4709300","article-title":"Role of Apolipoprotein A1 in PPAR Signaling Pathway for Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease","volume":"2022","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"PPAR Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2014.05.013","article-title":"Fluoroquinolone antibiotics and type 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"83","author":"Telfer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1083","DOI":"10.2147\/TCRM.S284171","article-title":"How Safe are Fluoroquinolones for Diabetic Patients? A Systematic Review of Dysglycemic and Neuropathic Effects of Fluoroquinolones","volume":"17","author":"Althaqafi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ther. Clin. Risk Manag."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3633","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2015-2696","article-title":"Use of Antibiotics and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: A Population-Based Case-Control Study","volume":"100","author":"Mikkelsen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-022-00685-9","article-title":"Antibiotics in the pathogenesis of diabetes and inflammatory diseases of the gastrointestinal tract","volume":"20","author":"Fenneman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1186\/s13098-020-00570-y","article-title":"NAFLD as a continuum: From obesity to metabolic syndrome and diabetes","volume":"12","author":"Valerio","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetol. Metab. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbih.2021.100198","article-title":"Abnormalities of the composition of the gut microbiota and short-chain fatty acids in mice after splenectomy","volume":"11","author":"Wei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun. Health"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1496","DOI":"10.1177\/2050640618804444","article-title":"Fecal SCFAs and SCFA-producing bacteria in gut microbiome of human NAFLD as a putative link to systemic T-cell activation and advanced disease","volume":"6","author":"Rau","year":"2018","journal-title":"United Eur. Gastroenterol. J."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100573","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbih.2022.100573","article-title":"Impact of broad-spectrum antibiotics on the gut-microbiota-spleen-brain axis","volume":"27","author":"Wan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun. Health"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.17-0485","article-title":"Influence of changes in the intestinal microflora on the immune function in mice","volume":"80","author":"Kishida","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2186","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.15663","article-title":"Antibiotic use and development of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: A population-based case-control study","volume":"43","author":"Ebrahimi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Liver Int."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brandt, A., Csarmann, K., H\u00e9rnandez-Arriaga, A., Baumann, A., Staltner, R., Halilbasic, E., Trauner, M., Camarinha-Silva, A., and Bergheim, I. (2023). Antibiotics attenuate diet-induced non-alcoholic fatty liver disease without altering intestinal barrier dysfunction. J. Nutr. Biochem., 123.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2023.109495"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1206","DOI":"10.1111\/jcmm.17175","article-title":"Alterations of nitric oxide homeostasis as trigger of intestinal barrier dysfunction in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"26","author":"Baumann","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Cell Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00045-15","DOI":"10.1128\/mSphere.00045-15","article-title":"Antibiotic-Induced Alterations of the Gut Microbiota Alter Secondary Bile Acid Production and Allow for Clostridium difficile Spore Germination and Outgrowth in the Large Intestine","volume":"1","author":"Theriot","year":"2016","journal-title":"mSphere"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100387","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhepr.2021.100387","article-title":"Bile acids contribute to the development of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis in mice","volume":"4","author":"Gillard","year":"2021","journal-title":"JHEP Rep."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Su\u00e1rez-Rivero, J.M., Pastor-Maldonado, C.J., Povea-Cabello, S., \u00c1lvarez-C\u00f3rdoba, M., Villal\u00f3n-Garc\u00eda, I., Talaver\u00f3n-Rey, M., Su\u00e1rez-Carrillo, A., Munuera-Cabeza, M., and S\u00e1nchez-Alc\u00e1zar, J.A. (2021). Mitochondria and Antibiotics: For Good or for Evil?. Biomolecules, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom11071050"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-017-0135-z","article-title":"Cellular death, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and diabetic complications","volume":"9","author":"Volpe","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramanathan, R., Ali, A.H., and Ibdah, J.A. (2022). Mitochondrial Dysfunction Plays Central Role in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23137280"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3835(97)00269-3","article-title":"New quinolones, ofloxacin and levofloxacin, inhibit telomerase activity in transitional cell carcinoma cell lines","volume":"119","author":"Yamakuchi","year":"1997","journal-title":"Cancer Lett."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3294","DOI":"10.18632\/aging.101633","article-title":"Azithromycin and Roxithromycin define a new family of \u201csenolytic\u201d drugs that target senescent human fibroblasts","volume":"10","author":"Ozsvari","year":"2018","journal-title":"Aging"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2022407","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2021.2022407","article-title":"Epigenetic regulation by gut microbiota","volume":"14","author":"Woo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de la Cuesta-Zuluaga, J., Mueller, N.T., \u00c1lvarez-Quintero, R., Vel\u00e1squez-Mej\u00eda, E.P., Sierra, J.A., Corrales-Agudelo, V., Carmona, J.A., Abad, J.M., and Escobar, J.S. (2018). Higher Fecal Short-Chain Fatty Acid Levels Are Associated with Gut Microbiome Dysbiosis, Obesity, Hypertension and Cardiometabolic Disease Risk Factors. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11010051"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tsai, H.J., Hung, W.C., Hung, W.W., Lee, Y.J., Chen, Y.C., Lee, C.Y., Tsai, Y.C., and Dai, C.Y. (2023). Circulating Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Severity in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15071712"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Francois, F., Roper, J., Joseph, N., Pei, Z., Chhada, A., Shak, J.R., de Perez, A.Z., Perez-Perez, G.I., and Blaser, M.J. (2011). The effect of H. pylori eradication on meal-associated changes in plasma ghrelin and leptin. BMC Gastroenterol., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-230X-11-37"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1038\/s41368-022-00212-1","article-title":"Systemic antibiotics increase microbiota pathogenicity and oral bone loss","volume":"15","author":"Yuan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Oral. Sci."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hatasa, M., Yoshida, S., Takahashi, H., Tanaka, K., Kubotsu, Y., Ohsugi, Y., Katagiri, T., Iwata, T., and Katagiri, S. (2021). Relationship between NAFLD and Periodontal Disease from the View of Clinical and Basic Research, and Immunological Response. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22073728"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1791","DOI":"10.3382\/ps\/pey539","article-title":"The application of antibiotics in broiler production and the resulting antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli: A global overview","volume":"98","author":"Roth","year":"2019","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X.JFP-17-086","article-title":"Antibiotic Residues in Chicken Meat: Global Prevalence, Threats, and Decontamination Strategies: A Review","volume":"81","author":"Muaz","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.31.1.2104","article-title":"Use of antibiotics in plant agriculture","volume":"31","author":"Stockwell","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-017-00900-1","article-title":"The gut microbiome in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease","volume":"8","author":"Jie","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khalili, L., Centner, A.M., and Salazar, G. (2023). Effects of Berries, Phytochemicals, and Probiotics on Atherosclerosis through Gut Microbiota Modification: A Meta-Analysis of Animal Studies. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24043084"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.1007\/s00392-020-01709-7","article-title":"NAFLD and cardiovascular diseases: A clinical review","volume":"110","author":"Kasper","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Res. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1244405","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2023.1244405","article-title":"Insulin resistance and central obesity determine hepatic steatosis and explain cardiovascular risk in steatotic liver disease","volume":"14","author":"Semmler","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"706","article-title":"NAFLD and risk of cardiovascular disease","volume":"16","author":"Leake","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"l5367","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.l5367","article-title":"Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and risk of incident acute myocardial infarction and stroke: Findings from matched cohort study of 18 million European adults","volume":"367","author":"Alexander","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Niederseer, D., Wernly, B., Aigner, E., Stickel, F., and Datz, C. (2021). NAFLD and Cardiovascular Diseases: Epidemiological, Mechanistic and Therapeutic Considerations. J. Clin. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10030467"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1080\/17512433.2019.1665027","article-title":"A review of antibiotics and psoriasis: Induction, exacerbation, and amelioration","volume":"12","author":"Tsai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6892","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v21.i22.6892","article-title":"Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, spleen and psoriasis: New aspects of low-grade chronic inflammation","volume":"21","author":"Balato","year":"2015","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Puccini, V. (2022). Antibiotic Therapy and Athletes: Is the Mitochondrial Dysfunction the Real Achilles\u2019 Heel?. Sports, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/sports10090131"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1097\/MCO.0000000000000688","article-title":"Gut microbial dysbiosis as a limiting factor in the management of primary and secondary sarcopenia: An Asian Indian perspective","volume":"23","author":"Bhattacharya","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1002\/cld.900","article-title":"Association of Sarcopenia and NAFLD: An Overview","volume":"16","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Liver Dis."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1887","DOI":"10.1007\/s11739-023-03339-z","article-title":"Sarcopenia, a condition shared by various diseases: Can we alleviate or delay the progression?","volume":"18","author":"Tarantino","year":"2023","journal-title":"Intern. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_92","first-page":"3723","article-title":"Antibiotics directly induce apoptosis in B cell lymphoma cells derived from BALB\/c mice","volume":"24","author":"Ohara","year":"2004","journal-title":"Anticancer. Res."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e268","DOI":"10.1097\/EE9.0000000000000268","article-title":"Long-term exposure to air pollution and prevalent nonalcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"7","author":"Matthiessen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"905","article-title":"Air Pollution Might Contribute to Antibiotic Resistance","volume":"330","author":"Harris","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dang, J., Yang, M., Zhang, X., Ruan, H., Qin, G., Fu, J., Shen, Z., Tan, A., Li, R., and Moore, J. (2018). Associations of Exposure to Air Pollution with Insulin Resistance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15112593"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/25\/4\/1993\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:56:07Z","timestamp":1760104567000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/25\/4\/1993"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,6]]},"references-count":95,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms25041993"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms25041993","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,6]]}}}