{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,24]],"date-time":"2026-07-24T09:45:25Z","timestamp":1784886325336,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,10]],"date-time":"2024-02-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1707523200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Testicular germ cell tumors (TGCTs) are relatively common in young men, making accurate diagnosis and prognosis assessment essential. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), including microRNA-371a-3p (miR-371a-3p), have shown promise as biomarkers for TGCTs. This review discusses the recent advancements in the use of miRNA biomarkers in TGCTs, with a focus on the challenges surrounding the noninvasive detection of teratomas. Circulating miR-371a-3p, which is expressed in undifferentiated TGCTs but not in teratomas, is a promising biomarker for TGCTs. Its detection in serum, plasma, and, potentially, cystic fluid could be useful for TGCT diagnosis, surveillance, and monitoring of therapeutic response. Other miRNAs, such as miR-375-3p and miR-375-5p, have been investigated to differentiate between TGCT subtypes (teratoma, necrosis\/fibrosis, and viable tumors), which can aid in treatment decisions. However, a reliable marker for teratoma has yet to be identified. The clinical applications of miRNA biomarkers could spare patients from unnecessary surgeries and allow for more personalized therapeutic approaches. Particularly in patients with residual masses larger than 1 cm following chemotherapy, it is critical to differentiate between viable tumors, teratomas, and necrosis\/fibrosis. Teratomas, which mimic somatic tissues, present a challenge in differentiation and require a comprehensive diagnostic approach. The combination of miR-371 and miR-375 shows potential in enhancing diagnostic precision, aiding in distinguishing between teratomas, viable tumors, and necrosis. The implementation of miRNA biomarkers in TGCT care could improve patient outcomes, reduce overtreatment, and facilitate personalized therapeutic strategies. However, a reliable marker for teratoma is still lacking. Future research should focus on the clinical validation and standardization of these biomarkers to fully realize their potential.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25042156","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,12]],"date-time":"2024-02-12T03:50:27Z","timestamp":1707709827000},"page":"2156","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["MicroRNAs in Testicular Germ Cell Tumors: The Teratoma Challenge"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Nuphat","family":"Yodkhunnatham","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-0105-4430","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kshitij","family":"Pandit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6657-0135","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dhruv","family":"Puri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kit L.","family":"Yuen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aditya","family":"Bagrodia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"},{"name":"Department of Urology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Siegel, R.L., Miller, K.D., and Jemal, A. 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