{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T15:47:05Z","timestamp":1790178425943,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,5]],"date-time":"2024-03-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1709596800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012514","name":"Instituto de Salud Carlos III through the Fondo de Investigaci\u00f3n para la Salud","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["CB12\/03\/30038"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CB12\/03\/30038"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012514","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012514","name":"Instituto de Salud Carlos III through the Fondo de Investigaci\u00f3n para la Salud","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PEJ2018-002452-A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PEJ2018-002452-A"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012514","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012514","name":"Instituto de Salud Carlos III through the Fondo de Investigaci\u00f3n para la Salud","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["AP_2021_022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AP_2021_022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012514","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Youth Guarantee program of the Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities of the Government of Spain and European Social Funds","award":["CB12\/03\/30038"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CB12\/03\/30038"]}]},{"name":"Youth Guarantee program of the Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities of the Government of Spain and European Social Funds","award":["PEJ2018-002452-A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PEJ2018-002452-A"]}]},{"name":"Youth Guarantee program of the Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities of the Government of Spain and European Social Funds","award":["AP_2021_022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AP_2021_022"]}]},{"name":"Conselleria de Fons Europeus, Universitat i Cultura of the Government of the Balearic Islands","award":["CB12\/03\/30038"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CB12\/03\/30038"]}]},{"name":"Conselleria de Fons Europeus, Universitat i Cultura of the Government of the Balearic Islands","award":["PEJ2018-002452-A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PEJ2018-002452-A"]}]},{"name":"Conselleria de Fons Europeus, Universitat i Cultura of the Government of the Balearic Islands","award":["AP_2021_022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AP_2021_022"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>SARS-CoV-2 induces a hyperinflammatory reaction due to the excessive release of cytokines during the immune response. The bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS) contributes to the low-grade inflammation associated with the metabolic syndrome, enhancing the hyperinflammatory reaction induced by the SARS-CoV-2 infection. The intake of sodium nitrate, a precursor of nitrite and nitric oxide, influences the antioxidant and pro-inflammatory gene expression profile after immune stimulation with LPS in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from metabolic syndrome patients. We aimed to assess the inflammatory and antioxidant responses of immune cells from metabolic syndrome patients to exposure to the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (S protein) together with LPS and the effect of nitrite in these responses. Whole blood samples obtained from six metabolic syndrome patients were cultured for 16 h at 37 \u00b0C with four different media: control medium, control medium plus LPS (100 ng\/mL), control medium plus LPS (100 ng\/mL) plus S protein (10 ng\/mL), and control medium plus LPS (100 ng\/mL) plus S protein (10 ng\/mL) plus nitrite (5 \u00b5M). Immune stimulation with the LPS\/S protein enhanced nitrate biosynthesis from nitrite oxidation and probably from additional organic precursors. In vitro incubations with the LPS\/S protein enhanced the expression and\/or release of pro-inflammatory TNF\u03b1, IL-6, IL-1\u03b2, and TLR4, as well as the expression of the anti-inflammatory IL-1ra and IL-10 and antioxidant enzymes. Nitrite attenuated the pro- and anti-inflammatory response induced by the S protein without interfering with the activation of TLR4 and antioxidant enzyme expression, raising the possibility that nitrite could have potential as a coadjutant in the treatment of COVID-19.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25053001","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,5]],"date-time":"2024-03-05T05:31:19Z","timestamp":1709616679000},"page":"3001","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Nitrite Attenuates the In Vitro Inflammatory Response of Immune Cells to the SARS-CoV-2 S Protein without Interfering in the Antioxidant Enzyme Activation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1924-7727","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miguel D.","family":"Ferrer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Group on Community Nutrition and Oxidative Stress, University of Balearic Islands-IUNICS, 07122 Palma, Spain"},{"name":"Health Research Institute of Balearic Islands (IdISBa), 07120 Palma, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Clara","family":"Reyn\u00e9s","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Group on Community Nutrition and Oxidative Stress, University of Balearic Islands-IUNICS, 07122 Palma, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laura","family":"Jim\u00e9nez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Group on Community Nutrition and Oxidative Stress, University of Balearic Islands-IUNICS, 07122 Palma, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gianluca","family":"Malagraba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Group on Community Nutrition and Oxidative Stress, University of Balearic Islands-IUNICS, 07122 Palma, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8856-135X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Margalida","family":"Monserrat-Mesquida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Group on Community Nutrition and Oxidative Stress, University of Balearic Islands-IUNICS, 07122 Palma, Spain"},{"name":"Health Research Institute of Balearic Islands (IdISBa), 07120 Palma, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red Fisiopatolog\u00eda de la Obesidad y la Nutrici\u00f3n (CIBEROBN), Institute of Health Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1407-8461","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristina","family":"Bouzas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Group on Community Nutrition and Oxidative Stress, University of Balearic Islands-IUNICS, 07122 Palma, Spain"},{"name":"Health Research Institute of Balearic Islands (IdISBa), 07120 Palma, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red Fisiopatolog\u00eda de la Obesidad y la Nutrici\u00f3n (CIBEROBN), Institute of Health Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8656-6838","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antoni","family":"Sureda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Group on Community Nutrition and Oxidative Stress, University of Balearic Islands-IUNICS, 07122 Palma, Spain"},{"name":"Health Research Institute of Balearic Islands (IdISBa), 07120 Palma, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red Fisiopatolog\u00eda de la Obesidad y la Nutrici\u00f3n (CIBEROBN), Institute of Health Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6940-0761","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Josep 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