{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]],"date-time":"2026-06-17T23:43:37Z","timestamp":1781739817671,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,11]],"date-time":"2024-05-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1715385600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Health Research Board","award":["HRA-POR-2015-1205"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HRA-POR-2015-1205"]}]},{"name":"Health Research Board","award":["COV19-2020-071"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["COV19-2020-071"]}]},{"name":"Health Research Board","award":["20\/SPP\/3685"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20\/SPP\/3685"]}]},{"name":"Science Foundation Ireland","award":["HRA-POR-2015-1205"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HRA-POR-2015-1205"]}]},{"name":"Science Foundation Ireland","award":["COV19-2020-071"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["COV19-2020-071"]}]},{"name":"Science Foundation Ireland","award":["20\/SPP\/3685"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20\/SPP\/3685"]}]},{"name":"European Reference Network for rare immune disorders (ERN-RITA)","award":["HRA-POR-2015-1205"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HRA-POR-2015-1205"]}]},{"name":"European Reference Network for rare immune disorders (ERN-RITA)","award":["COV19-2020-071"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["COV19-2020-071"]}]},{"name":"European Reference Network for rare immune disorders (ERN-RITA)","award":["20\/SPP\/3685"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20\/SPP\/3685"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Immunosuppressive treatment in patients with rheumatic diseases can maintain disease remission but also increase risk of infection. Their response to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) vaccination is frequently blunted. In this study we evaluated the effect of immunosuppression exposure on humoral and T cell immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination in two distinct cohorts of patients; one during acute SARS-CoV-2 infection and 3 months later during convalescence, and another prior to SARS-CoV-2 vaccination, with follow up sampling 6 weeks after vaccination. Results were compared between rituximab-exposed (in previous 6 months), immunosuppression-exposed (in previous 3 months), and non-immunosuppressed groups. The immune cell phenotype was defined by flow cytometry and ELISA. Antigen specific T cell responses were estimated using a whole blood stimulation interferon-\u03b3 release assay. A focused post-vaccine assessment of rituximab-treated patients using high dimensional spectral cytometry was conducted. Acute SARS-CoV-2 infection was characterised by T cell lymphopenia, and a reduction in NK cells and na\u00efve CD4 and CD8 cells, without any significant differences between immunosuppressed and non-immunosuppressed patient groups. Conversely, activated CD4 and CD8 cell counts increased in non-immunosuppressed patients with acute SARS-CoV-2 infection but this response was blunted in the presence of immunosuppression. In rituximab-treated patients, antigen-specific T cell responses were preserved in SARS-CoV-2 vaccination, but patients were unable to mount an appropriate humoral response.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25105239","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,14]],"date-time":"2024-05-14T08:03:08Z","timestamp":1715673788000},"page":"5239","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Effect of Immunosuppression on the Immune Response to SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Vaccination"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0623-1593","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emma J.","family":"Leacy","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Trinity Kidney Centre, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, D08 W9RT Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3846-142X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jia Wei","family":"Teh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nephrology, Galway University Hospital, H91 YR71 Galway, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9882-2907","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aoife M.","family":"O\u2019Rourke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, D02 R590 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gareth","family":"Brady","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Trinity Kidney Centre, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, D08 W9RT Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Siobhan","family":"Gargan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, Trinity College Dublin, D08 W9RT Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Niall","family":"Conlon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, St. James\u2019s Hospital, D08 NHY1 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jennifer","family":"Scott","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Trinity Kidney Centre, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, D08 W9RT Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jean","family":"Dunne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, St. James\u2019s Hospital, D08 NHY1 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Phelan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Trinity Kidney Centre, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, D08 W9RT Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8701-8056","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matthew D.","family":"Griffin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nephrology, Galway University Hospital, H91 YR71 Galway, Ireland"},{"name":"Regenerative Medicine Institute (REMEDI) at C\u00daRAM SFI Research Centre for Medical Devices, School of Medicine, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Julie","family":"Power","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vasculitis Ireland Awareness, Belfast & Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aoife","family":"Mooney","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, St. James\u2019s Hospital, D08 NHY1 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aifric","family":"Naughton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, St. James\u2019s Hospital, D08 NHY1 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rachel","family":"Kiersey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, St. James\u2019s Hospital, D08 NHY1 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mary","family":"Gardiner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, St. James\u2019s Hospital, D08 NHY1 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Caroline","family":"O\u2019Brien","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, St. James\u2019s Hospital, D08 NHY1 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ronan","family":"Mullan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, Trinity College Dublin, D08 W9RT Dublin, Ireland"},{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, Tallaght University Hospital, D24 NR0A Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rachael","family":"Flood","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, Trinity College Dublin, D08 W9RT Dublin, Ireland"},{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, Tallaght University Hospital, D24 NR0A Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4975-1385","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"Clarkson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nephrology, Cork University Hospital, T12 DC4A Cork, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7089-0665","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liam","family":"Townsend","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectious Diseases, St. James\u2019s Hospital, D08 NHY1 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michelle","family":"O\u2019Shaughnessy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nephrology, Galway University Hospital, H91 YR71 Galway, Ireland"},{"name":"Department of Nephrology, Cork University Hospital, T12 DC4A Cork, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1356-510X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adam H.","family":"Dyer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Medical Gerontology, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, D08 W9RT Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Barry","family":"Moran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, D02 R590 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jean M.","family":"Fletcher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, D02 R590 Dublin, 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