{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T16:56:26Z","timestamp":1788886586391,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,1]],"date-time":"2024-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1717200000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is an X-linked progressive disorder associated with muscle wasting and degeneration. The disease is caused by mutations in the gene that encodes dystrophin, a protein that links the cytoskeleton with cell membrane proteins. The current treatment methods aim to relieve the symptoms of the disease or partially rescue muscle functionality. However, they are insufficient to suppress disease progression. In recent years, studies have uncovered an important role for non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) in regulating the progression of numerous diseases. ncRNAs, such as micro-RNAs (miRNAs), bind to their target messenger RNAs (mRNAs) to suppress translation. Understanding the mechanisms involving dysregulated miRNAs can improve diagnosis and suggest novel treatment methods for patients with DMD. This review presents the available evidence on the role of altered expression of miRNAs in the pathogenesis of DMD. We discuss the involvement of these molecules in the processes associated with muscle physiology and DMD-associated cardiomyopathy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25116108","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,3]],"date-time":"2024-06-03T08:19:42Z","timestamp":1717402782000},"page":"6108","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["The Role of MicroRNA in the Pathogenesis of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8227-6753","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kajetan","family":"Kie\u0142bowski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Pomeranian Medical University, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Estera","family":"Bakinowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Pomeranian Medical University, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8333-7570","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Grzegorz","family":"Procyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Chair and Department of Cardiology, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1A, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland"},{"name":"Doctoral School, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-091 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marta","family":"Zi\u0119tara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Pomeranian Medical University, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6557-1208","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrzej","family":"Pawlik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Pomeranian Medical University, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1183101","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2023.1183101","article-title":"Duchenne muscular dystrophy: Disease mechanism and therapeutic strategies","volume":"14","author":"Hosny","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-021-00248-3","article-title":"Duchenne muscular dystrophy","volume":"7","author":"Duan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1007\/s12098-017-2397-y","article-title":"Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy: A Practice Update","volume":"85","author":"Suthar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Indian J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(18)30026-7","article-title":"Diagnosis and management of Duchenne muscular dystrophy, part 3: Primary care, emergency management, psychosocial care, and transitions of care across the lifespan","volume":"17","author":"Birnkrant","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2304","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000012910","article-title":"Life Expectancy in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy: Reproduced Individual Patient Data Meta-Analysis","volume":"97","author":"Broomfield","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Molinaro, M., Torrente, Y., Villa, C., and Farini, A. (2024). Advancing Biomarker Discovery and Therapeutic Targets in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy: A Comprehensive Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25010631"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"838884","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.838884","article-title":"MicroRNA-Mediated Epigenetic Regulation of Rheumatoid Arthritis Susceptibility and Pathogenesis","volume":"13","author":"Chang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krauze, A., Procyk, G., G\u0105secka, A., Garstka-Pacak, I., and Wrzosek, M. (2023). The Role of MicroRNAs in Aortic Stenosis-Lessons from Recent Clinical Research Studies. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241713095"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advms.2023.02.004","article-title":"The role of selected non-coding RNAs in the biology of non-small cell lung cancer","volume":"68","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Procyk, G., Klimczak-Tomaniak, D., Sygitowicz, G., and Tomaniak, M. (2022). Circulating and Platelet MicroRNAs in Cardiovascular Risk Assessment and Antiplatelet Therapy Monitoring. J. Clin. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11071763"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Procyk, G., Grodzka, O., Procyk, M., G\u0105secka, A., G\u0142uszek, K., and Wrzosek, M. (2023). MicroRNAs in Myocarditis\u2014Review of the Preclinical In Vivo Trials. Biomedicines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines11102723"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.12227","article-title":"Circulating myomiRs: A new class of biomarkers to monitor skeletal muscle in physiology and medicine","volume":"9","author":"Siracusa","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-016-0316-x","article-title":"The emerging role of viral vectors as vehicles for DMD gene editing","volume":"8","author":"Maggio","year":"2016","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2018.01.004","article-title":"Muscular Dystrophies","volume":"39","author":"Carter","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Chest Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1338","DOI":"10.1007\/s12325-024-02801-4","article-title":"Evolving Role of Viltolarsen for Treatment of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy","volume":"41","author":"Vincik","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Ther."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-009-8089-5","article-title":"The roles of the dystrophin-associated glycoprotein complex at the synapse","volume":"41","author":"Pilgram","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-3940(92)90890-J","article-title":"Dystrophin-like immunoreactivity in monkey and human brain areas involved in learning and motor functions","volume":"141","author":"Huard","year":"1992","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.3233\/JND-190431","article-title":"Pseudoexons of the DMD Gene","volume":"7","author":"Keegan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neuromuscul. Dis."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2006.05.010","article-title":"Dystrophin, its interactions with other proteins, and implications for muscular dystrophy","volume":"1772","author":"Ervasti","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.1002\/cphy.c140048","article-title":"The Dystrophin Complex: Structure, Function, and Implications for Therapy","volume":"5","author":"Gao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Compr. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12140","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.8b05721","article-title":"Dystrophin As a Molecular Shock Absorber","volume":"12","author":"Le","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcb.2006.02.001","article-title":"Sparks, signals and shock absorbers: How dystrophin loss causes muscular dystrophy","volume":"16","author":"Batchelor","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trends Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fortunato, F., Rossi, R., Falzarano, M.S., and Ferlini, A. (2021). Innovative Therapeutic Approaches for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. J. Clin. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10040820"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mirouse, V. (2023). Evolution and developmental functions of the dystrophin-associated protein complex: Beyond the idea of a muscle-specific cell adhesion complex. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2023.1182524"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(87)90579-4","article-title":"Dystrophin: The protein product of the Duchenne muscular dystrophy locus","volume":"51","author":"Hoffman","year":"1987","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvv021","article-title":"Dystrophic cardiomyopathy: Role of TRPV2 channels in stretch-induced cell damage","volume":"106","author":"Lorin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"184","article-title":"The role of fibrosis in Duchenne muscular dystrophy","volume":"31","author":"Klingler","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acta Myol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1186\/s13395-018-0177-7","article-title":"Muscle membrane integrity in Duchenne muscular dystrophy: Recent advances in copolymer-based muscle membrane stabilizers","volume":"8","author":"Houang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Skelet. Muscle"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nmd.2023.03.008","article-title":"Safety, tolerability and pharmacokinetics of eteplirsen in young boys aged 6-48 months with Duchenne muscular dystrophy amenable to exon 51 skipping","volume":"33","author":"Mercuri","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuromuscul. Disord."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Law, M.L., Cohen, H., Martin, A.A., Angulski, A.B.B., and Metzger, J.M. (2020). Dysregulation of Calcium Handling in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy-Associated Dilated Cardiomyopathy: Mechanisms and Experimental Therapeutic Strategies. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9020520"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1038\/352536a0","article-title":"The mdx mouse diaphragm reproduces the degenerative changes of Duchenne muscular dystrophy","volume":"352","author":"Stedman","year":"1991","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1002\/mus.20586","article-title":"Entries in the Leiden Duchenne muscular dystrophy mutation database: An overview of mutation types and paradoxical cases that confirm the reading-frame rule","volume":"34","author":"Fokkema","year":"2006","journal-title":"Muscle Nerve"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.26461","article-title":"Dystrophinopathy Phenotypes and Modifying Factors in DMD Exon 45\u201355 Deletion","volume":"92","author":"Liquori","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/0888-7543(88)90113-9","article-title":"An explanation for the phenotypic differences between patients bearing partial deletions of the DMD locus","volume":"2","author":"Monaco","year":"1988","journal-title":"Genomics"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1657","DOI":"10.1002\/humu.21114","article-title":"Mutational spectrum of DMD mutations in dystrophinopathy patients: Application of modern diagnostic techniques to a large cohort","volume":"30","author":"Flanigan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hum. Mutat."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1136\/jmedgenet-2015-103387","article-title":"The importance of genetic diagnosis for Duchenne muscular dystrophy","volume":"53","author":"Ginjaar","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Med. Genet."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1038\/jhg.2010.49","article-title":"Mutation spectrum of the dystrophin gene in 442 Duchenne\/Becker muscular dystrophy cases from one Japanese referral center","volume":"55","author":"Takeshima","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21547","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-48982-w","article-title":"Mutational spectrum and phenotypic variability of Duchenne muscular dystrophy and related disorders in a Bangladeshi population","volume":"13","author":"Sarker","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iannone, F., Montesanto, A., Cione, E., Crocco, P., Caroleo, M.C., Dato, S., Rose, G., and Passarino, G. (2020). Expression Patterns of Muscle-Specific miR-133b and miR-206 Correlate with Nutritional Status and Sarcopenia. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12020297"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1113\/JP280405","article-title":"The microRNA miR-133b functions to slow Duchenne muscular dystrophy pathogenesis","volume":"599","author":"Taetzsch","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3619","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.13-233460","article-title":"RhoA mediates defective stem cell function and heterotopic ossification in dystrophic muscle of mice","volume":"27","author":"Mu","year":"2013","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24853","DOI":"10.18632\/aging.202413","article-title":"Aberrant RhoA activation in macrophages increases senescence-associated secretory phenotypes and ectopic calcification in muscular dystrophic mice","volume":"12","author":"Mu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aging"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1373","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.12923","article-title":"RhoA\/ROCK2 signalling is enhanced by PDGF-AA in fibro-adipogenic progenitor cells: Implications for Duchenne muscular dystrophy","volume":"13","author":"Pons","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1880","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.13278","article-title":"RhoA\/ROCK signalling activated by ARHGEF3 promotes muscle weakness via autophagy in dystrophic mdx mice","volume":"14","author":"You","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lopez, M.A., Si, Y., Hu, X., Williams, V., Qushair, F., Carlyle, J., Alesce, L., Conklin, M., Gilbert, S., and Bamman, M.M. (2022). Smad8 Is Increased in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy and Suppresses miR-1, miR-133a, and miR-133b. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23147515"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2054","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI62656","article-title":"microRNA-206 promotes skeletal muscle regeneration and delays progression of Duchenne muscular dystrophy in mice","volume":"122","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C209","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.00185.2016","article-title":"Muscle-specific microRNA-206 targets multiple components in dystrophic skeletal muscle representing beneficial adaptations","volume":"312","author":"Amirouche","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1111\/nan.12735","article-title":"Utrophin modulator drugs as potential therapies for Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophies","volume":"47","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.2353\/ajpath.2009.080537","article-title":"Valproic acid activates the PI3K\/Akt\/mTOR pathway in muscle and ameliorates pathology in a mouse model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy","volume":"174","author":"Gurpur","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2011.01.002","article-title":"Activation of AKT signaling promotes cell growth and survival in \u03b17\u03b21 integrin-mediated alleviation of muscular dystrophy","volume":"1812","author":"Boppart","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-021-00785-0","article-title":"Perturbation of PI3K\/Akt signaling affected autophagy modulation in dystrophin-deficient myoblasts","volume":"19","author":"Yazid","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Commun. Signal."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymthe.2020.09.029","article-title":"PTEN Inhibition Ameliorates Muscle Degeneration and Improves Muscle Function in a Mouse Model of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy","volume":"29","author":"Yue","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jgr.2019.01.007","article-title":"Ginsenoside Rb1 and Rb2 upregulate Akt\/mTOR signaling-mediated muscular hypertrophy and myoblast differentiation","volume":"44","author":"Go","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Ginseng Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2651","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI73579","article-title":"MicroRNA-486-dependent modulation of DOCK3\/PTEN\/AKT signaling pathways improves muscular dystrophy-associated symptoms","volume":"124","author":"Alexander","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, S.E., Jeong, J.B., Oh, S.J., Kim, S.J., Kim, H., Choi, A., Choi, S.J., Oh, S.Y., Ryu, G.H., and Lee, J. (2021). Wharton\u2019s Jelly-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells Reduce Fibrosis in a Mouse Model of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy by Upregulating microRNA 499. Biomedicines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines9091089"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ismaeel, A., Kim, J.S., Kirk, J.S., Smith, R.S., Bohannon, W.T., and Koutakis, P. (2019). Role of Transforming Growth Factor-\u03b2 in Skeletal Muscle Fibrosis: A Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20102446"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e135703","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.135703","article-title":"TGF-\u03b2-driven muscle degeneration and failed regeneration underlie disease onset in a DMD mouse model","volume":"5","author":"Novak","year":"2020","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bakinowska, E., Kie\u0142bowski, K., and Pawlik, A. (2023). The Role of Extracellular Vesicles in the Pathogenesis and Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis and Osteoarthritis. Cells, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12232716"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2018.04.055","article-title":"Placenta-derived mesenchymal stromal cells and their exosomes exert therapeutic effects in Duchenne muscular dystrophy","volume":"174","author":"Bier","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.omtn.2020.08.031","article-title":"Genome Editing-Mediated Utrophin Upregulation in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Stem Cells","volume":"22","author":"Sengupta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Ther. Nucleic Acids"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bostock, E.L., Edwards, B.T., Jacques, M.F., Pogson, J.T.S., Reeves, N.D., Onambele-Pearson, G.L., and Morse, C.I. (2018). Impaired Glucose Tolerance in Adults with Duchenne and Becker Muscular Dystrophy. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10121947"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1186\/s13023-023-02885-1","article-title":"The metabolomic plasma profile of patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy: Providing new evidence for its pathogenesis","volume":"18","author":"Xu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Orphanet J. Rare Dis."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3945","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-07868-z","article-title":"miR-378 affects metabolic disturbances in the mdx model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy","volume":"12","author":"Podkalicka","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Casati, S.R., Cervia, D., Roux-Biejat, P., Moscheni, C., Perrotta, C., and De Palma, C. (2024). Mitochondria and Reactive Oxygen Species: The Therapeutic Balance of Powers for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. Cells, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells13070574"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e202201506","DOI":"10.26508\/lsa.202201506","article-title":"Dlk1-Dio3 cluster miRNAs regulate mitochondrial functions in the dystrophic muscle in Duchenne muscular dystrophy","volume":"6","author":"Bourg","year":"2023","journal-title":"Life Sci. Alliance"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1186\/s40478-023-01657-z","article-title":"Myopathologic trajectory in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) reveals lack of regeneration due to senescence in satellite cells","volume":"11","author":"Cardone","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol. Commun."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2017.7435","article-title":"Heme Oxygenase-1 Influences Satellite Cells and Progression of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy in Mice","volume":"29","author":"Kozakowska","year":"2018","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.200911036","article-title":"microRNA-1 and microRNA-206 regulate skeletal muscle satellite cell proliferation and differentiation by repressing Pax7","volume":"190","author":"Chen","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13383","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0900210106","article-title":"Muscle stem cell behavior is modified by microRNA-27 regulation of Pax3 expression","volume":"106","author":"Crist","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shen, J., Wang, J., Zhen, H., Liu, Y., Li, L., Luo, Y., Hu, J., Liu, X., Li, S., and Hao, Z. (2022). MicroRNA-381 Regulates Proliferation and Differentiation of Caprine Skeletal Muscle Satellite Cells by Targeting. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232113587"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1186\/s13619-022-00112-z","article-title":"miR-378-mediated glycolytic metabolism enriches the Pax7","volume":"11","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Regen."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, Y., Li, P., Dan, X., Kang, X., Ma, Y., and Shi, Y. (2022). Inhibits Proliferation and Differentiation of Bovine Skeletal Muscle Satellite Cells by Targeting. Genes, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes13060947"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2533","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2016.02.081","article-title":"Dystrophin-Deficient Cardiomyopathy","volume":"67","author":"Kamdar","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1007\/s10741-009-9156-8","article-title":"Cardiomyopathy in Duchenne muscular dystrophy: Pathogenesis and therapeutics","volume":"15","author":"Fayssoil","year":"2010","journal-title":"Heart Fail. Rev."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e027480","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.122.027480","article-title":"Dwarf Open Reading Frame (DWORF) Gene Therapy Ameliorated Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Cardiomyopathy in Aged mdx Mice","volume":"12","author":"Morales","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2347","DOI":"10.1093\/hmg\/ddab199","article-title":"Cardiomyocyte-produced miR-339-5p mediates pathology in Duchenne muscular dystrophy cardiomyopathy","volume":"30","author":"Gartz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum. Mol. Genet."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvv238","article-title":"Pivotal role of miR-448 in the development of ROS-induced cardiomyopathy","volume":"108","author":"Kyrychenko","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H710","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00890.2013","article-title":"NADPH oxidase-2 inhibition restores contractility and intracellular calcium handling and reduces arrhythmogenicity in dystrophic cardiomyopathy","volume":"307","author":"Gonzalez","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.omtn.2024.102174","article-title":"Inhibition of miR-25 ameliorates cardiac and skeletal muscle dysfunction in aged","volume":"35","author":"Kepreotis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol. Ther. Nucleic Acids"},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"94","article-title":"Markers of degeneration and regeneration in Duchenne muscular dystrophy","volume":"28","author":"Korraa","year":"2009","journal-title":"Acta Myol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Toivonen, J.M., Manzano, R., Oliv\u00e1n, S., Zaragoza, P., Garc\u00eda-Redondo, A., and Osta, R. (2014). MicroRNA-206: A potential circulating biomarker candidate for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0089065"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3335","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.08-128579","article-title":"Common micro-RNA signature in skeletal muscle damage and regeneration induced by Duchenne muscular dystrophy and acute ischemia","volume":"23","author":"Greco","year":"2009","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2885","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2014.07.021","article-title":"Serum profiling identifies novel muscle miRNA and cardiomyopathy-related miRNA biomarkers in Golden Retriever muscular dystrophy dogs and Duchenne muscular dystrophy patients","volume":"184","author":"Lameth","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.omtn.2018.08.005","article-title":"Comprehensive RNA-Sequencing Analysis in Serum and Muscle Reveals Novel Small RNA Signatures with Biomarker Potential for DMD","volume":"13","author":"Sork","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Ther. Nucleic Acids"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.00304","article-title":"Longitudinal Study of Three microRNAs in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy and Becker Muscular Dystrophy","volume":"11","author":"Trifunov","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1186\/s13023-022-02603-3","article-title":"Identification of circulating miRNAs differentially expressed in patients with Limb-girdle, Duchenne or facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophies","volume":"17","author":"Bas","year":"2022","journal-title":"Orphanet J. Rare Dis."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1002\/emmm.201100133","article-title":"miRNAs as serum biomarkers for Duchenne muscular dystrophy","volume":"3","author":"Cacchiarelli","year":"2011","journal-title":"EMBO Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zaharieva, I.T., Calissano, M., Scoto, M., Preston, M., Cirak, S., Feng, L., Collins, J., Kole, R., Guglieri, M., and Straub, V. (2013). Dystromirs as serum biomarkers for monitoring the disease severity in Duchenne muscular Dystrophy. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0080263"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1111\/jnc.12662","article-title":"Serum miR-206 and other muscle-specific microRNAs as non-invasive biomarkers for Duchenne muscular dystrophy","volume":"129","author":"Hu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e177","DOI":"10.1038\/mtna.2014.29","article-title":"Circulating Muscle-specific miRNAs in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Patients","volume":"3","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Ther. Nucleic Acids"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nmd.2016.11.003","article-title":"Digital PCR quantification of miR-30c and miR-181a as serum biomarkers for Duchenne muscular dystrophy","volume":"27","author":"Ortez","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuromuscul. Disord."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"921785","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2022.921785","article-title":"Novel miRNA Biomarkers for Patients With Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy","volume":"13","author":"Meng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.2217\/epi-2018-0022","article-title":"Downregulation of miRNA-29, -23 and -21 in urine of Duchenne muscular dystrophy patients","volume":"10","author":"Catapano","year":"2018","journal-title":"Epigenomics"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1899","DOI":"10.2217\/epi-2020-0052","article-title":"Novel free-circulating and extracellular vesicle-derived miRNAs dysregulated in Duchenne muscular dystrophy","volume":"12","author":"Catapano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Epigenomics"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1111\/ane.13673","article-title":"Natural history of circulating miRNAs in Duchenne disease: Association with muscle injury and metabolic parameters","volume":"146","author":"Mendoza","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Neurol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anaya-Segura, M.A., Rangel-Villalobos, H., Mart\u00ednez-Cort\u00e9s, G., G\u00f3mez-D\u00edaz, B., Coral-V\u00e1zquez, R.M., Zamora-Gonz\u00e1lez, E.O., Garc\u00eda, S., and L\u00f3pez-Hern\u00e1ndez, L.B. (2016). Serum Levels of MicroRNA-206 and Novel Mini-STR Assays for Carrier Detection in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms17081334"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105634","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clineuro.2019.105634","article-title":"Circulating MicroRNAs in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy","volume":"189","author":"Mousa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563609","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.563609","article-title":"Serum MyomiRs as Biomarkers for Female Carriers of Duchenne\/Becker Muscular Dystrophy","volume":"11","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e50863","DOI":"10.15252\/embr.202050863","article-title":"HDAC inhibitors tune miRNAs in extracellular vesicles of dystrophic muscle-resident mesenchymal cells","volume":"21","author":"Consalvi","year":"2020","journal-title":"EMBO Rep."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1007\/s12539-020-00388-2","article-title":"Comprehensive Analysis of Long Non-coding RNA-Associated Competing Endogenous RNA Network in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy","volume":"12","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Interdiscip. Sci."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1332","DOI":"10.1038\/s41556-020-00595-5","article-title":"The lncRNA H19 alleviates muscular dystrophy by stabilizing dystrophin","volume":"22","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/25\/11\/6108\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:52:13Z","timestamp":1760107933000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/25\/11\/6108"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,1]]},"references-count":101,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms25116108"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms25116108","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,1]]}}}