{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T23:17:47Z","timestamp":1790896667563,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,6]],"date-time":"2024-06-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1717632000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this narrative review, we attempt to provide an overview of the evidence regarding the role of estrogen (receptors) in cutaneous melanoma (CM). We reviewed 68 studies and 4 systematic reviews and meta-analyses published from 2002 up to and including 2022. The prevailing presence of estrogen receptor \u03b2 (ER\u03b2) instead of estrogen receptor \u03b1 (ER\u03b1) in CM is notable, with ER\u03b2 potentially playing a protective role and being less frequently detected in progressive cases. While men with CM generally experience a less favorable prognosis, this distinction may become negligible with advancing age. The role of oral contraceptives (OC) and hormone replacement therapy (HRT) in CM remains controversial. However, recent studies tend to associate the use of these exogenous hormones with a heightened risk of CM, mostly only when using estrogen therapy and not in combination with progesterone. On the contrary, the majority of studies find no substantial influence of in vitro fertilization (IVF) treatment on CM risk. Reproductive factors, including younger age at first childbirth, higher parity, and shorter reproductive life, show conflicting evidence, with some studies suggesting a lower CM risk. We suggest an important role for estrogens in CM. More research is needed, but the integration of estrogens and targeting the estrogen receptors in melanoma therapy holds promise for future developments in the field.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25116251","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,6]],"date-time":"2024-06-06T03:44:35Z","timestamp":1717645475000},"page":"6251","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["A Narrative Review of the Role of Estrogen (Receptors) in Melanoma"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Diet","family":"Caerts","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Dermatology, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria","family":"Garmyn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Dermatology, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7597-1720","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Canan","family":"G\u00fcven\u00e7","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Dermatology, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1001\/jamadermatol.2022.0160","article-title":"Global Burden of Cutaneous Melanoma in 2020 and Projections to 2040","volume":"158","author":"Arnold","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Registry, B.C. (2023, November 23). Available online: http:\/\/kankerregister.org\/media\/docs\/CancerFactSheets\/2021\/Cancer_Fact_Sheet_Melanoma_2021.pdf."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1007\/s40471-019-00192-7","article-title":"Sex Differences in Melanoma","volume":"6","author":"Schwartz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Epidemiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u00fcven\u00e7, C., Antoranz, A., Szumera-Cie\u0107kiewicz, A., Teterycz, P.P., Rutkowski, P.R., Rawson, R.V., Scolyer, R.A., Thompson, J.F., Newton-Bishop, J., and Stas, M. (2021). Road to Metastasis: The TWEAK Pathway as a Discriminant between Metastasizing and Non-Metastasizing Thick Melanomas. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms221910568"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaax8096","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aax8096","article-title":"Estrogen receptor \u03b1 controls metabolism in white and brown adipocytes by regulating Polg1 and mitochondrial remodeling","volume":"12","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2017.12","article-title":"The effects of oestrogens and their receptors on cardiometabolic health","volume":"13","author":"Morselli","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1038\/jid.2010.354","article-title":"Gender differences in melanoma survival: Female patients have a decreased risk of metastasis","volume":"131","author":"Joosse","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(18)30078-0","article-title":"Association of body-mass index and outcomes in patients with metastatic melanoma treated with targeted therapy, immunotherapy, or chemotherapy: A retrospective, multicohort analysis","volume":"19","author":"McQuade","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e33511","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.33511","article-title":"Why do women with melanoma do better than men?","volume":"7","author":"Smalley","year":"2018","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41514","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M112.404871","article-title":"Estrogen receptor \u03b1 signaling regulates breast tumor-initiating cells by down-regulating miR-140 which targets the transcription factor SOX2","volume":"287","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4508","DOI":"10.1038\/onc.2017.53","article-title":"Sox2 is not required for melanomagenesis, melanoma growth and melanoma metastasis in vivo","volume":"36","author":"Cesarini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4516","DOI":"10.1038\/onc.2017.55","article-title":"Sox2 is dispensable for primary melanoma and metastasis formation","volume":"36","author":"Schaefer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, Z., Jiao, Y., Zhao, Y., and Gu, W. (2022). Level of Estrogen in Females-The Different Impacts at Different Life Stages. J. Pers. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm12121995"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1177\/1753495X17695001","article-title":"Melanoma in pregnancy","volume":"10","author":"Still","year":"2017","journal-title":"Obstet. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1007\/s10552-008-9110-4","article-title":"Melanoma in relation to reproductive and hormonal factors in women: Current review on controversial issues","volume":"19","author":"Lens","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cancer Causes Control"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1080\/13697137.2023.2196002","article-title":"The WHO claims estrogens are \u2018carcinogenic\u2019: Is this true?","volume":"26","author":"Ruan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Climacteric"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00026.2006","article-title":"Estrogen receptors: How do they signal and what are their targets","volume":"87","author":"Heldring","year":"2007","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.apcsb.2019.01.001","article-title":"Estrogen receptor signaling mechanisms","volume":"116","author":"Fuentes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Protein Chem. Struct. Biol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.11613\/BM.2014.035","article-title":"The many faces of estrogen signaling","volume":"24","author":"Ostanek","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biochem. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1346-8138.2008.00447.x","article-title":"Expression of estrogen receptor \u03b2 in normal skin, melanocytic nevi and malignant melanomas","volume":"35","author":"Ohata","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rajabi, P., Bagheri, M., and Hani, M. (2017). Expression of Estrogen Receptor Alpha in Malignant Melanoma. Adv. Biomed. Res., 6.","DOI":"10.4103\/2277-9175.200789"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1905","DOI":"10.1111\/jocd.14391","article-title":"Effect of estrogen in malignant melanoma","volume":"21","author":"Bhari","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Cosmet. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2005). Effects of chemotherapy and hormonal therapy for early breast cancer on recurrence and 15-year survival: An overview of the randomised trials. Lancet, 365, 1687\u20131717.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)66544-0"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6692","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-06-0801","article-title":"Estrogen receptor-\u03b1 methylation predicts melanoma progression","volume":"66","author":"Mori","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4137\/GEG.S31264","article-title":"Estrogen Receptor Alpha (ESR1) Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) Affect Malignant Melanoma Susceptibility and Disease Course","volume":"8","author":"Glatthaar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Genet. Epigenet"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1111\/bjd.12056","article-title":"Oestrogen receptor beta and melanoma: A comparative study","volume":"168","author":"Gori","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"4","article-title":"A comparative study of estrogen receptor beta expression in melanoma and benign melanocytic lesions","volume":"15","author":"Nasiri","year":"2012","journal-title":"Iran. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0625.2006.00502.x","article-title":"Oestrogen receptor-beta expression in melanocytic lesions","volume":"15","author":"Schmidt","year":"2006","journal-title":"Exp. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"30","article-title":"Estrogen receptor expression in cutaneous melanoma: A real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemical study","volume":"145","author":"Mavilia","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arch. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1159\/000328321","article-title":"Polymorphisms of estrogen receptors: Risk factors for invasive melanoma-a prospective study","volume":"80","author":"Sestini","year":"2011","journal-title":"Oncology"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"123","article-title":"Expression of estrogen receptors in melanoma and sentinel lymph nodes; a \"female\" clinical entity or a possible treatment modality?","volume":"36","author":"Spyropoulos","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Gynaecol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1453","DOI":"10.1111\/jdv.14304","article-title":"Expression of G protein-coupled oestrogen receptor in melanoma and in pregnancy-associated melanoma","volume":"31","author":"Rencz","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, T.A., Yourk, V., Farhat, A., Guo, K.L., Garcia, A., Meyskens, F.L., and Liu-Smith, F. (2020). A possible link of genetic variations in ER\/IGF1R pathway and risk of melanoma. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21051776"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spa\u0142kowska, M., Dyduch, G., Broniatowska, E., Damiani, G., and Wojas-Pelc, A. (2021). Molecular Proof of a Clinical Concept: Expression of Estrogen Alpha-, Beta-Receptors and G Protein-Coupled Estrogen Receptor 1 (GPER) in Histologically Assessed Common Nevi, Dysplastic Nevi and Melanomas. Medicina, 57.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina57111228"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E467","DOI":"10.1210\/clinem\/dgab713","article-title":"Serum Estradiol and 20 Site-Specific Cancers in Women: Mendelian Randomization Study","volume":"107","author":"Larsson","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1097\/CMR.0000000000000826","article-title":"Female melanoma and estrogen receptors expression: An immunohistochemical pilot study","volume":"32","author":"Dika","year":"2022","journal-title":"Melanoma Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdm498","article-title":"Superior survival of females among 10,538 Dutch melanoma patients is independent of Breslow thickness, histologic type and tumor site","volume":"19","author":"Nijsten","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ann. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2240","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2011.38.0584","article-title":"Superior outcome of women with stage I\/II cutaneous melanoma: Pooled analysis of four European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer phase III trials","volume":"30","author":"Joosse","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2337","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2012.44.5031","article-title":"Sex is an independent prognostic indicator for survival and relapse\/progression-free survival in metastasized stage III to IV melanoma: A pooled analysis of five European organisation for research and treatment of cancer randomized controlled trials","volume":"31","author":"Joosse","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1007\/s40487-020-00109-1","article-title":"Gender Differences and Outcomes in Melanoma Patients","volume":"8","author":"Morgese","year":"2020","journal-title":"Oncol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1097\/01.sla.0000216771.81362.6b","article-title":"Gender-related differences in outcome for melanoma patients","volume":"243","author":"Scoggins","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ann. Surg."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"912","DOI":"10.1001\/jamadermatol.2013.4408","article-title":"Melanoma survival disadvantage in young, non-Hispanic white males compared with females","volume":"149","author":"Gamba","year":"2013","journal-title":"JAMA Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4735","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2005.02.899","article-title":"Pediatric melanoma: Risk factor and survival analysis of the surveillance, epidemiology and end results database","volume":"23","author":"Strouse","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1795","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.23359","article-title":"Age and gender are significant independent predictors of survival in primary cutaneous melanoma","volume":"112","author":"Lasithiotakis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2203","DOI":"10.1002\/cam4.1152","article-title":"Survival of cutaneous melanoma based on sex, age, and stage in the United States, 1992\u20132011","volume":"6","author":"Enninga","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cancer Med."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1111\/pcmr.12035","article-title":"A unique gender difference in early onset melanoma implies that in addition to ultraviolet light exposure other causative factors are important","volume":"26","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pigment. Cell Melanoma Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hernando, B., Ibarrola-Villava, M., Fernandez, L.P., Pe\u00f1a-Chilet, M., Llorca-Carde\u00f1osa, M., Oltra, S.S., Alonso, S., Boyano, M.D., Martinez-Cadenas, C., and Ribas, G. (2016). Sex-specific genetic effects associated with pigmentation, sensitivity to sunlight, and melanoma in a population of Spanish origin. Biol. Sex. Differ., 7.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13293-016-0070-1"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bjc.6603260","article-title":"Oral contraceptive use and cancer. Findings in a large cohort study, 1968\u20132004","volume":"95","author":"Vessey","year":"2006","journal-title":"Br. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1159\/000360137","article-title":"Risks of malignant and non-malignant tumours in tall women treated with high-dose oestrogen during adolescence","volume":"82","author":"Benyi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Horm. Res. Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2390","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.31644","article-title":"Oral contraceptive use and cutaneous melanoma risk: A French prospective cohort study","volume":"143","author":"Cervenka","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bjc.6601595","article-title":"Hormone replacement therapy after surgery for stage 1 or 2 cutaneous melanoma","volume":"90","author":"MacKie","year":"2004","journal-title":"Br. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1469","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/djr333","article-title":"Menopausal hormone therapy and risks of melanoma and nonmelanoma skin cancers: Women\u2019s health initiative randomized trials","volume":"103","author":"Tang","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Natl. Cancer Inst."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2017.07.012","article-title":"Menopausal hormone therapy and cancer risk: An overestimated risk?","volume":"84","author":"Simin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1763","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.30878","article-title":"Menopausal hormone therapy and risk of melanoma: Do estrogens and progestins have a different role?","volume":"141","author":"Botteri","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1754","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.32150","article-title":"Postmenopausal hormone use and cutaneous melanoma risk: A French prospective cohort study","volume":"145","author":"Cervenka","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2418","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/dez222","article-title":"Hormone replacement therapy and the risk of melanoma in post-menopausal women","volume":"34","author":"Hicks","year":"2019","journal-title":"Human. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1857","DOI":"10.1158\/1055-9965.EPI-19-0554","article-title":"Menopausal hormone therapy and risk of melanoma: A nationwide register-based study in Finland","volume":"28","author":"Botteri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2020.105182","article-title":"Postmenopausal exogenous hormone therapy and Melanoma risk in women: A systematic review and time-response meta-analysis","volume":"160","author":"Tang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.maturitas.2022.01.004","article-title":"Menopausal hormone therapy and melanoma risk in the Australian longitudinal study on women\u2019s health","volume":"160","author":"Botteri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Maturitas"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.maturitas.2022.10.010","article-title":"The effect of menopausal hormone therapy on the risk of melanoma and keratinocyte skin cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies","volume":"168","author":"Lallas","year":"2022","journal-title":"Maturitas"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.1023\/B:CACO.0000003839.56954.73","article-title":"Risk of melanoma in relation to smoking, alcohol intake, and other factors in a large occupational cohort","volume":"14","author":"Freedman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cancer Causes Control"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annepidem.2004.10.005","article-title":"Cutaneous malignant melanoma in women. Phenotypic characteristics, sun exposure, and hormonal factors: A case-control study from Italy","volume":"15","author":"Naldi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ann. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwk040","article-title":"Reproductive risk factors for cutaneous melanoma in women: A case-control study","volume":"165","author":"Lea","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2607","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2011.04.023","article-title":"Hormonal and reproductive factors in relation to melanoma in women: Current review and meta-analysis","volume":"47","author":"Gandini","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"754","DOI":"10.1038\/s41416-019-0411-z","article-title":"Reproductive factors, exogenous hormone use and incidence of melanoma among women in the United States","volume":"120","author":"Donley","year":"2019","journal-title":"Br. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1097\/CMR.0b013e32832f159c","article-title":"Does use of estrogens decrease the Breslow thickness of melanoma of the skin? Oral contraceptives and hormonal replacement therapy","volume":"19","author":"Koomen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Melanoma Res."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdn589","article-title":"Estrogens, oral contraceptives and hormonal replacement therapy increase the incidence of cutaneous melanoma: A population-based case-control study","volume":"20","author":"Koomen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1191","DOI":"10.1007\/s00432-017-2387-5","article-title":"Role of BMI and hormone therapy in melanoma risk: A case\u2013control study","volume":"143","author":"Gori","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3267","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.32674","article-title":"Exogenous hormone use and cutaneous melanoma risk in women: The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition","volume":"146","author":"Cervenka","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1183","DOI":"10.2147\/CLEP.S273566","article-title":"Effects of exogenous hormones and reproductive factors on female melanoma: A meta-analysis","volume":"12","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2005.01.091","article-title":"Melanoma, thyroid, cervical, and colon cancer risk after use of fertility drugs","volume":"193","author":"Althuis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1007\/s10552-008-9138-5","article-title":"Malignant melanoma risk after exposure to fertility drugs: Results from a large Danish cohort study","volume":"19","author":"Hannibal","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cancer Causes Control"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1824","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bjc.6605086","article-title":"Ovulation-stimulation drugs and cancer risks: A long-term follow-up of a British cohort","volume":"100","author":"Wark","year":"2009","journal-title":"Br. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1149","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/des031","article-title":"Cancer morbidity in a cohort of 9175 Finnish women treated for infertility","volume":"27","author":"Gissler","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1216","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/dev023","article-title":"Melanoma risk after ovarian stimulation for in vitro fertilization","volume":"30","author":"Spaan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/deac029","article-title":"Reproductive factors, hormone use, and incidence of melanoma in a cohort of US Radiologic Technologists","volume":"37","author":"Mai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Human. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"365","article-title":"Cancer risk after exposure to treatments for ovulation induction","volume":"169","author":"Friedlander","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1007\/s10552-010-9526-5","article-title":"Cancer risk in DES daughters","volume":"21","author":"Verloop","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cancer Causes Control"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1097\/CMR.0000000000000019","article-title":"Association between in-vitro fertilization, birth and melanoma","volume":"23","author":"Stewart","year":"2013","journal-title":"Melanoma Res."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0037-1603098","article-title":"Fertility Status and Cancer","volume":"35","author":"Brinton","year":"2017","journal-title":"Semin. Reprod. Med."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsi.2015.05.003","article-title":"Tofu, urinary phytoestrogens, and melanoma: An analysis of a national database in the United States","volume":"33","author":"Lai","year":"2015","journal-title":"Dermatol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1684\/ejd.2017.3019","article-title":"Oestrogen and progesterone receptors in melanoma and nevi: An immunohistochemical study","volume":"27","author":"Dika","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2248","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.11321","article-title":"Pregnancy and early-stage melanoma","volume":"97","author":"Daryanani","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4369","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2004.02.096","article-title":"Effect of pregnancy on survival in women with cutaneous malignant melanoma","volume":"22","author":"Lens","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.20925","article-title":"Malignant melanoma in pregnancy. A population-based evaluation","volume":"103","author":"Cress","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1375\/twin.8.2.156","article-title":"The effects of twins, parity and age at first birth on cancer risk in Swedish women","volume":"8","author":"Neale","year":"2005","journal-title":"Twin Res. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/s10552-005-0281-y","article-title":"Pregnancy history and incidence of melanoma in women: A pooled analysis","volume":"17","author":"Karagas","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cancer Causes Control"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1265","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwm015","article-title":"Reproductive history and cutaneous malignant melanoma: A comparison between women and men","volume":"165","author":"Kaae","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjps.2009.05.050","article-title":"Malignant melanoma and pregnancy: Second thoughts","volume":"63","author":"Miller","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Plast. Reconstr. Aesthet. Surg."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1097\/DAD.0b013e3182914c64","article-title":"Immunohistochemical expression of hormone receptors in melanoma of pregnant women, nonpregnant women, and men","volume":"36","author":"Zhou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Dermatopathol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3892\/mco.2021.2303","article-title":"Evaluation of 2-methoxyestradiol serum levels as a potential prognostic marker in malignant melanoma","volume":"15","author":"Hrgovic","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1192","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwq503","article-title":"Cutaneous melanoma and endogenous hormonal factors: A large French prospective study","volume":"173","author":"Kvaskoff","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1039\/b9pp00168a","article-title":"Oestrogen receptor-beta signalling protects against transplanted skin tumour growth in the mouse","volume":"9","author":"Cho","year":"2010","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2540356","DOI":"10.1155\/2024\/2540356","article-title":"Significance of Estrogen\/Progesterone Receptor Expression in Metaplastic Breast Carcinoma","volume":"2024","author":"Hashmi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Dis. Markers"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e87","DOI":"10.1111\/jdv.14534","article-title":"Melanoma and chronic exposure to contraceptives containing microdoses of ethinylestradiol in young women: A retrospective study from the Research on Adverse Drug Events and Reports (RADAR) project comprising a large Midwestern U.S. patient population","volume":"32","author":"Mueller","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1111\/bjd.19498","article-title":"Reproductive factors, hormone use and melanoma risk: An Australian prospective cohort study","volume":"184","author":"Olsen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2929","DOI":"10.1002\/jcb.26498","article-title":"Hepatocyte-generated 27-hydroxycholesterol promotes the growth of melanoma by activation of estrogen receptor alpha","volume":"119","author":"Tian","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Cell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejmech.2024.116393","article-title":"Dual-target inhibitors based on ER\u03b1: Novel therapeutic approaches for endocrine resistant breast cancer","volume":"270","author":"Xiong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E3673","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1803291115","article-title":"Pharmacological activation of estrogen receptor beta augments innate immunity to suppress cancer metastasis","volume":"115","author":"Zhao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, Y., Zeng, M., Xu, R., Zhang, B., Wang, S., Li, B., Kan, Y., Cao, B., Zheng, X., and Feng, W. (2021). Inhibitory activity of acteoside in melanoma via regulation of the ER\u03b2-Ras\/Raf1-STAT3 pathway. Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 710.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abb.2021.108978"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3010","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-11-3768","article-title":"Stromal estrogen receptor-\u03b1 promotes tumor growth by normalizing an increased angiogenesis","volume":"72","author":"Blacher","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.20473","article-title":"In vitro and in vivo antitumor effect of 2-methoxyestradiol on human melanoma","volume":"112","author":"Dobos","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1080\/08923973.2022.2062380","article-title":"2-methoxyestradiol inhibits melanoma cell growth by activating adaptive immunity","volume":"44","author":"Hua","year":"2022","journal-title":"Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8459","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.14275","article-title":"Estradiol shows anti-skin cancer activities through decreasing MDM2 expression","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e31770","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.31770","article-title":"Activation of G protein-coupled estrogen receptor signaling inhibits melanoma and improves response to immune checkpoint blockade","volume":"7","author":"Natale","year":"2018","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jid.2021.12.028","article-title":"Therapeutic Potential of Nitric Oxide\u2014Releasing Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators in Malignant Melanoma","volume":"142","author":"Bechmann","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1186\/s13643-020-01542-z","article-title":"PRISMA-S: An extension to the PRISMA Statement for Reporting Literature Searches in Systematic Reviews","volume":"10","author":"Rethlefsen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Syst. Rev."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/25\/11\/6251\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:54:28Z","timestamp":1760108068000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/25\/11\/6251"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,6]]},"references-count":107,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms25116251"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms25116251","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,6]]}}}