{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]],"date-time":"2026-08-31T13:56:11Z","timestamp":1788184571122,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":155,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,4]],"date-time":"2024-07-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1720051200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Italian Ministry of Health","award":["PRIN-20227LC4SK"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRIN-20227LC4SK"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Thyroid Hormones (THs) play a central role in the development, cell growth, differentiation, and metabolic homeostasis of neurosensory systems, including the retina. The coordinated activity of various components of TH signaling, such as TH receptors (THRs) and the TH processing enzymes deiodinases 2 and 3 (DIO2, DIO3), is required for proper retinal maturation and function of the adult photoreceptors, M\u00fcller glial cells, and pigmented epithelial cells. Alterations of TH homeostasis, as observed both in frank or subclinical thyroid disorders, have been associated with sight-threatening diseases leading to irreversible vision loss i.e., diabetic retinopathy (DR), and age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Although observational studies do not allow causal inference, emerging data from preclinical models suggest a possible correlation between TH signaling imbalance and the development of retina disease. In this review, we analyze the most important features of TH signaling relevant to retinal development and function and its possible implication in DR and AMD etiology. A better understanding of TH pathways in these pathological settings might help identify novel targets and therapeutic strategies for the prevention and management of retinal disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25137364","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,8]],"date-time":"2024-07-08T12:21:03Z","timestamp":1720441263000},"page":"7364","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Thyroid Hormone Signaling in Retinal Development and Function: Implications for Diabetic Retinopathy and Age-Related Macular Degeneration"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Giuseppina","family":"Nicolini","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CNR Institute of Clinical Physiology, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0270-4437","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giovanni","family":"Casini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, University of Pisa, 56127 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0222-5177","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chiara","family":"Posarelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ophthalmology, Department of Surgical, Medical and Molecular Pathology and Critical Care Medicine, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8386-4714","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rosario","family":"Amato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, University of Pisa, 56127 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8528-4094","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matteo","family":"Lulli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences \u201cMario Serio\u201d, University of Florence, 50134 Florence, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Silvana","family":"Balzan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNR Institute of Clinical Physiology, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesca","family":"Forini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNR Institute of Clinical Physiology, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"e230241","article-title":"Insights on the role of thyroid hormone transport in neurosensory organs and implication for the Allan-Herndon-Dudley syndrome","volume":"13","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. 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