{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T05:07:43Z","timestamp":1791522463634,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,31]],"date-time":"2024-08-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1725062400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>New psychoactive substances (NPSs) are a heterogenous group of psychotropic molecules and diverted pharmaceutical drugs sold worldwide as legal substitutes for controlled drugs. The psychiatric consequences of NPS use are relatively unknown, although evidence of related psychotic symptoms has been described in the literature. We sought to summarize the available evidence on NPS-related psychiatric disorders, to facilitate the interpretation of the molecular mechanism underlying their specific pathologies. A literature search of Scopus, PubMed and Google Scholar was conducted including studies published between 2013 and 2024, in which a correlation between NPS consumption and psychiatric symptoms was reported. Furthermore, the short- and long-term psychopathological effects were included. The literature search resulted in 109 NPS-related intoxication cases in which acute or chronic psychiatric symptoms were reported, mostly related to synthetic cannabinoids, followed by synthetic cathinones, hallucinogens, natural NPSs and stimulants. The most common acute symptoms were hallucinations, aggressiveness, and psychotic and bizarre behavior, related to the molecular disbalance of neurotransmitters in the central nervous systems, with different mechanisms. The lack of clear diagnostic criteria and toxicological analyses has resulted in crucial complications in psychiatric diagnoses related to NPS intoxication. Hence, the implementation of toxicological screening procedures in emergency rooms, including the main NPS classes, should support the diagnosis of acute intoxication and its proper therapeutic treatment. Finally, proper follow-up should be implemented to assess the chronic sequelae.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25179484","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,3]],"date-time":"2024-09-03T09:56:42Z","timestamp":1725357402000},"page":"9484","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":30,"title":["New Psychoactive Substances Toxicity: A Systematic Review of Acute and Chronic Psychiatric Effects"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Beldisa","family":"Taflaj","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Azienda Ospedaliera San Giovanni Addolorata, Via dell\u2019Amba Aradam 8, 00184 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0127-4225","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nunzia","family":"La Maida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanit\u00e0, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0561-3442","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberta","family":"Tittarelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Forensic Toxicology, Section of Legal and Forensic Medicine, Social Security and Forensic Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, University of Rome \u201cTor Vergata\u201d, Via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Annagiulia","family":"Di Trana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanit\u00e0, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9039-6154","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ilaria","family":"D\u2019Acquarica","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, Sapienza Universit\u00e0 di Roma, Piazzale A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2024, July 10). UNODC World Drug Report 2024\u2014Drug Market Patterns and Trends. Available online: https:\/\/www.unodc.org\/unodc\/en\/data-and-analysis\/wdr2024-drug-market-trends.html."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2024, July 10). EUDA Drug Supply, Production and Precursors\u2014The Current Situation in Europe (European Drug Report 2024). Available online: https:\/\/www.euda.europa.eu\/publications\/european-drug-report\/2024\/drug-supply-production-and-precursors_en."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105877","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microc.2020.105877","article-title":"Chemical Classification of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS)","volume":"163","author":"Zapata","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microchem. J."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2024, July 10). EUDA New Psychoactive Substances\u2014The Current Situation in Europe (European Drug Report 2024). Available online: https:\/\/www.euda.europa.eu\/publications\/european-drug-report\/2024\/drug-situation-in-europe-up-to-2024_en."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"144","article-title":"The Complex and Constantly Evolving Public Health Threat of New Psychoactive Substances in Italy: Addressing the Main Functions of a National Observatory of Drugs","volume":"57","author":"Graziano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Ist. Super. Sanita"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pantano, F., Tittarelli, R., Mannocchi, G., Zaami, S., Ricci, S., Giorgetti, R., Terranova, D., Busard\u00f2, F.P., and Marinelli, E. (2016). Hepatotoxicity Induced by \u201cthe 3Ks\u201d: Kava, Kratom and Khat. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms17040580"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schifano, N., Chiappini, S., Mosca, A., Miuli, A., Santovito, M.C., Pettorruso, M., Capogrosso, P., Deh\u00f2, F., Martinotti, G., and Schifano, F. (2022). Recreational Drug Misuse and Its Potential Contribution to Male Fertility Levels\u2019 Decline: A Narrative Review. Brain Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci12111582"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Orsolini, L., Chiappini, S., Papanti, D., De Berardis, D., Corkery, J.M., and Schifano, F. (2019). The Bridge Between Classical and \u201cSynthetic\u201d\/Chemical Psychoses: Towards a Clinical, Psychopathological, and Therapeutic Perspective. Front. Psychiatry, 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2019.00851"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2591","DOI":"10.1002\/hup.2591","article-title":"Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS) Use in Severe Mental Illness (SMI) Patients: Potential Changes in the Phenomenology of Psychiatric Diseases","volume":"32","author":"Bersani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e009430","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2015-009430","article-title":"Use of Novel Psychoactive Substances by Inpatients on General Adult Psychiatric Wards","volume":"6","author":"Stanley","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2045125320967197","DOI":"10.1177\/2045125320967197","article-title":"New Psychoactive Substances: A Review and Updates","volume":"10","author":"Shafi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.20174","article-title":"Novel Psychoactive Substances of Interest for Psychiatry","volume":"14","author":"Schifano","year":"2015","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1521-0391.2012.00222.x","article-title":"Synthetic Cannabinoid Induced Psychosis in a Previously Nonpsychotic Patient","volume":"21","author":"Peglow","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Addict."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-024-06569-x","article-title":"A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Synthetic Cathinone Use and Psychosis","volume":"241","author":"Daswani","year":"2024","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1111\/ppc.12101","article-title":"Bath Salt-Induced Psychosis: Nursing Assessment, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Outcomes","volume":"52","author":"Stiles","year":"2016","journal-title":"Perspect. Psychiatr. Care"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Daziani, G., Lo Faro, A.F., Montana, V., Goteri, G., Pesaresi, M., Bambagiotti, G., Montanari, E., Giorgetti, R., and Montana, A. (2023). Synthetic Cathinones and Neurotoxicity Risks: A Systematic Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24076230"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiappini, S., Mosca, A., Miuli, A., Santovito, M.C., Orsolini, L., Corkery, J.M., Guirguis, A., Pettorruso, M., Martinotti, G., and Di Giannantonio, M. (2021). New Psychoactive Substances and Suicidality: A Systematic Review of the Current Literature. Medicina, 57.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina57060580"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiappini, S., Vaccaro, G., Mosca, A., Miuli, A., Stigliano, G., Stefanelli, G., Giovannetti, G., Carullo, R., d\u2019Andrea, G., and Di Carlo, F. (2024). New Trends of Drug Abuse in Custodial Settings: A Systematic Review on the Misuse of over-the-Counter Drugs, Prescription-Only-Medications, and New Psychoactive Substances. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 162.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2024.105691"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1111\/jpm.12297","article-title":"A Systematic Review of the Effects of Novel Psychoactive Substances \u201clegal Highs\u201d on People with Severe Mental Illness","volume":"23","author":"Gray","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Ment. Health Nurs."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 Statement: An Updated Guideline for Reporting Systematic Reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1080\/10550887.2019.1673655","article-title":"Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder: A Literature Review and Three Case Reports","volume":"37","author":"Skryabin","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Addict. Dis."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"58","article-title":"Recurrent Psychotic Episodes Induced by Synthetic Cathinones in a Monozygotic Twin with Drug Addiction: A Case Report","volume":"4","author":"Severtsev","year":"2023","journal-title":"Consort. Psychiatr."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2017.01.020","article-title":"Acute Intoxication Caused by Synthetic Cannabinoids 5F-ADB and MMB-2201: A Case Series","volume":"273","author":"Pichini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Oliveira, M.C., Vides, M.C., Lassi, D.L.S., Torales, J., Ventriglio, A., Bombana, H.S., Leyton, V., P\u00e9rico, C.D.A.M., Negr\u00e3o, A.B., and Malbergier, A. (2023). Toxicity of Synthetic Cannabinoids in K2\/Spice: A Systematic Review. Brain Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci13070990"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2019.05.017","article-title":"Mono-\/Polyintoxication with 5F-ADB: A Case Series","volume":"301","author":"Kraemer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jemermed.2014.12.038","article-title":"A Common Source Outbreak of Severe Delirium Associated with Exposure to the Novel Synthetic Cannabinoid ADB-PINACA","volume":"48","author":"Schwartz","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jemermed.2015.06.053","article-title":"Synthetic Cannabinoid Abuse in Adolescents: A Case Series","volume":"49","author":"Besli","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1080\/15504263.2014.929364","article-title":"Use of Synthetic Cannabinoids in Patients with Psychotic Disorders: Case Series","volume":"10","author":"Celofiga","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Dual Diagn."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1676","DOI":"10.1111\/1556-4029.12216","article-title":"K2 Toxicity: Fatal Case of Psychiatric Complications Following AM2201 Exposure","volume":"58","author":"Patton","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Forensic Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"h299","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.h299","article-title":"An Adolescent with an Altered State of Mind","volume":"350","author":"Naviglio","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1080\/02791072.2017.1316431","article-title":"JWH-122 Consumption Adverse Effects: A Case of Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder Five-Year Follow-Up","volume":"49","author":"Coppola","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Psychoact. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2018.08.012","article-title":"Psychosis and Synthetic Cannabinoids","volume":"268","author":"Deng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jemermed.2012.07.061","article-title":"Synthetic Cannabinoid Intoxication: A Case Series and Review","volume":"44","author":"Harris","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.3371\/CSRP.DUDE.031513","article-title":"Psychosis and Severe Rhabdomyolysis with Synthetic Cannabinoid Use: A Case Report","volume":"8","author":"Durand","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Schizophr. Relat. Psychoses"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1002\/hup.2312","article-title":"\u201cspiceophrenia\u201d: A Systematic Overview of \u201cSpice\u201d-Related Psychopathological Issues and a Case Report","volume":"28","author":"Papanti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hum. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1080\/08897077.2012.677754","article-title":"Synthetic Cannabinoid Overdose in a 20-Year-Old Male US Soldier","volume":"34","author":"Ee","year":"2013","journal-title":"Subst. Abus."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"310930","article-title":"Synthetic Cannabis-Induced Mania","volume":"2015","author":"Ustundag","year":"2015","journal-title":"Case Rep. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonaccorso, S., Metastasio, A., Ricciardi, A., Stewart, N., Jamal, L., Rujully, N.U.D., Theleritis, C., Ferracuti, S., Ducci, G., and Schifano, F. (2018). Synthetic Cannabinoid Use in a Case Series of Patients with Psychosis Presenting to Acute Psychiatric Settings: Clinical Presentation and Management Issues. Brain Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci8070133"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e59","DOI":"10.1097\/YCT.0b013e3182887bc2","article-title":"Electroconvulsive Therapy Improves Persistent Psychosis after Repeated Use of Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (\u201cbath Salts\u201d)","volume":"29","author":"Penders","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. ECT"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2014.06.012","article-title":"Understanding the Risks Associated with the Use of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS): High Variability of Active Ingredients Concentration, Mislabelled Preparations, Multiple Psychoactive Substances in Single Products","volume":"229","author":"Zamengo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsat.2012.02.003","article-title":"Are \u201cBath Salts\u201d the next Generation of Stimulant Abuse?","volume":"44","author":"Winder","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Subst. Abus. Treat."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-015-1212-4","article-title":"Death Following Ingestion of Methylone","volume":"130","author":"Barrios","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Leg. Med."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"8379562","article-title":"Severe Psychosis, Drug Dependence, and Hepatitis C Related to Slamming Mephedrone","volume":"2016","year":"2016","journal-title":"Case Rep. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1002\/dta.2502","article-title":"Analytical Quantification, Intoxication Case Series, and Pharmacological Mechanism of Action for N-Ethylnorpentylone (N-Ethylpentylone or Ephylone)","volume":"11","author":"Costa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Drug Test Anal."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"342","article-title":"Clinical Presentation, Autopsy Results and Toxicology Findings in an Acute N-Ethylpentylone Fatality","volume":"41","author":"Thirakul","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/bkx080","article-title":"Toxicokinetics of the Synthetic Cathinone \u03b1-Pyrrolidinohexanophenone","volume":"42","author":"Fujita","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"3460849","article-title":"Flakka-Induced Prolonged Psychosis","volume":"2016","author":"Crespi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Case Rep. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.3371\/CSRP.JORO.061314","article-title":"Bath Salts Abuse Leading to New-Onset Psychosis and Potential for Violence","volume":"11","author":"John","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Schizophr. Relat. Psychoses"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.3-21.v1","article-title":"A Case of Severe Psychosis Induced by Novel Recreational Drugs","volume":"3","author":"Dragogna","year":"2014","journal-title":"F1000Research"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4103\/sjfms.sjfms_7_23","article-title":"Flakka: \u201cThe Zombie Drug\u201d a Medicolegal Concern: An Updated Review of \u03b1-Pyrrolidinopentiophenone","volume":"3","author":"Albishri","year":"2023","journal-title":"Saudi J. Forensic Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.3109\/15563650.2013.802795","article-title":"Severe Clinical Toxicity Associated with Analytically Confirmed Recreational Use of 25I-NBOMe: Case Series","volume":"51","author":"Hill","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.3109\/15563650.2013.772191","article-title":"A Case of 251-NBOMe (25-1) Intoxication: A New Potent 5-HT2A Agonist Designer Drug","volume":"51","author":"Rose","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.3109\/15563650.2014.920088","article-title":"Intoxications of the New Psychoactive Substance 5-(2-Aminopropyl)Indole (5-IT): A Case Series from the Swedish STRIDA Project","volume":"52","author":"Beck","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pepe, M., Di Nicola, M., Cocciolillo, F., Chiappini, S., Martinotti, G., Calcagni, M.L., and Sani, G. (2024). 3-Methoxy-Phencyclidine Induced Psychotic Disorder: A Literature Review and an 18F-FDG PET\/CT Case Report. Pharmaceuticals, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph17040452"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1080\/02791072.2019.1578444","article-title":"Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Impairment in Methoxetamine-Induced Psychosis: An 18F-FDG PET\/CT Case Study","volume":"51","author":"Moccia","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Psychoact. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2014.08.005","article-title":"Synthetic Cannabinoids: Epidemiology, Pharmacodynamics, and Clinical Implications","volume":"144","author":"Castaneto","year":"2014","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1345\/aph.1P580","article-title":"The \u201cNew\u201d Marijuana","volume":"45","author":"Wells","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Migliaro, M., Ruiz-Contreras, A.E., Herrera-Sol\u00eds, A., M\u00e9ndez-D\u00edaz, M., and Prosp\u00e9ro-Garc\u00eda, O.E. (2023). Endocannabinoid System and Aggression across Animal Species. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 153.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2023.105375"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1097\/FTD.0000000000000808","article-title":"A Review of Synthetic Cathinone-Related Fatalities From 2017 to 2020","volume":"43","author":"Giorgetti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ther. Drug Monit."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2007.07.018","article-title":"The Behavioral Pharmacology of Hallucinogens","volume":"75","author":"Fantegrossi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Halberstadt, A.L. (2017). Pharmacology and Toxicology of N-Benzylphenethylamine (\u201cNBOMe\u201d) Hallucinogens. Neuropharmacology of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS), Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/7854_2016_64"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Trana, A., Berardinelli, D., Montanari, E., Berretta, P., Basile, G., Huestis, M.A., and Busard\u00f2, F.P. (2022). Molecular Insights and Clinical Outcomes of Drugs of Abuse Adulteration: New Trends and New Psychoactive Substances. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232314619"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ps.55.7.818","article-title":"Brief Reports: A Program to Reduce Use of Physical Restraint in Psychiatric Inpatient Facilities","volume":"55","author":"Jonikas","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Serv."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/25\/17\/9484\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:46:13Z","timestamp":1760111173000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/25\/17\/9484"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,31]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms25179484"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms25179484","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,31]]}}}