{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T23:28:40Z","timestamp":1787873320911,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":138,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,2]],"date-time":"2024-10-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1727827200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Health, Roma, Italy","award":["RC 26\/22"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RC 26\/22"]}]},{"name":"Institute for Maternal and Child Health IRCCS Burlo Garofolo, Trieste, Italy","award":["RC 26\/22"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RC 26\/22"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM) is a chronic autoimmune disease that results in the destruction of pancreatic \u03b2 cells, leading to hyperglycaemia and the need for lifelong insulin therapy. Although genetic predisposition and environmental factors are considered key contributors to T1DM, the exact causes of the disease remain partially unclear. Recent evidence has focused on the relationship between the gut, the oral cavity, immune regulation, and systemic inflammation. In individuals with T1DM, changes in the gut and oral microbial composition are commonly observed, indicating that dysbiosis may contribute to immune dysregulation. Gut dysbiosis can influence the immune system through increased intestinal permeability, altered production of short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), and interactions with the mucosal immune system, potentially triggering the autoimmune response. Similarly, oral dysbiosis may contribute to the development of systemic inflammation and thus influence the progression of T1DM. A comprehensive understanding of these relationships is essential for the identification of biomarkers for early diagnosis and monitoring, as well as for the development of therapies aimed at restoring microbial balance. This review presents a synthesis of current research on the connection between T1DM and microbiome dysbiosis, with a focus on the gut and oral microbiomes in pediatric populations. It explores potential mechanisms by which microbial dysbiosis contributes to the pathogenesis of T1DM and examines the potential of microbiome-based therapies, including probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, and faecal microbiota transplantation (FMT). This complex relationship highlights the need for longitudinal studies to monitor microbiome changes over time, investigate causal relationships between specific microbial species and T1DM, and develop personalised medicine approaches.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms251910611","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,2]],"date-time":"2024-10-02T03:57:08Z","timestamp":1727841428000},"page":"10611","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Unravelling the Role of Gut and Oral Microbiota in the Pediatric Population with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7391-9956","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefania","family":"Luppi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Maternal and Child Health\u2014IRCCS Burlo Garofolo, 65\/1 Via dell\u2019Istria, 34137 Trieste, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Strada di Fiume 447, 34149 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-9116-2685","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luana","family":"Aldegheri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Maternal and Child Health\u2014IRCCS Burlo Garofolo, 65\/1 Via dell\u2019Istria, 34137 Trieste, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Strada di Fiume 447, 34149 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5193-268X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eros","family":"Azzalini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Strada di Fiume 447, 34149 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emanuele","family":"Pacetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Strada di Fiume 447, 34149 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giulia","family":"Barucca Sebastiani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medicine of Services Department, Clinical Analysis Laboratory, Azienda Sanitaria Universitaria Giuliano Isontina, 34125 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carolina","family":"Fabiani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medicine of Services Department, Clinical Analysis Laboratory, Azienda Sanitaria Universitaria Giuliano Isontina, 34125 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2152-2353","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonietta","family":"Robino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Maternal and Child Health\u2014IRCCS Burlo Garofolo, 65\/1 Via dell\u2019Istria, 34137 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manola","family":"Comar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Maternal and Child Health\u2014IRCCS Burlo Garofolo, 65\/1 Via dell\u2019Istria, 34137 Trieste, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Strada di Fiume 447, 34149 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2149","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(23)00223-4","article-title":"Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"401","author":"Quattrin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, H., Sun, L., Zhang, S., Zhao, X., Gang, X., and Wang, G. (2020). Evaluating the Causal Role of Gut Microbiota in Type 1 Diabetes and Its Possible Pathogenic Mechanisms. Front. Endocrinol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2020.00125"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tan, X., Wang, Y., and Gong, T. (2023). The Interplay between Oral Microbiota, Gut Microbiota and Systematic Diseases. J. Oral. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.1080\/20002297.2023.2213112"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rogers, M.A.M., Kim, C., Banerjee, T., and Lee, J.M. (2017). Fluctuations in the Incidence of Type 1 Diabetes in the United States from 2001 to 2015: A Longitudinal Study. BMC Med., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-017-0958-6"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(22)00218-2","article-title":"Global Incidence, Prevalence, and Mortality of Type 1 Diabetes in 2021 with Projection to 2040: A Modelling Study","volume":"10","author":"Gregory","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108072","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2020.108072","article-title":"Global and Regional Estimates and Projections of Diabetes-Related Health Expenditure: Results from the International Diabetes Federation Diabetes Atlas, 9th Edition","volume":"162","author":"Williams","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)60591-7","article-title":"Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"383","author":"Atkinson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1360","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198605223142106","article-title":"Type I Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"314","author":"Eisenbarth","year":"1986","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.2337\/diabetes.48.3.460","article-title":"Autoantibody Appearance and Risk for Development of Childhood Diabetes in Offspring of Parents with Type 1 Diabetes: The 2-Year Analysis of the German BABYDIAB Study","volume":"48","author":"Ziegler","year":"1999","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1370","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-017-4308-1","article-title":"Early Prediction of Autoimmune (Type 1) Diabetes","volume":"60","author":"Regnell","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kawasaki, E. (2023). Anti-Islet Autoantibodies in Type 1 Diabetes. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202305.0196.v1"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Minniakhmetov, I., Yalaev, B., Khusainova, R., Bondarenko, E., Melnichenko, G., Dedov, I., and Mokrysheva, N. (2024). Genetic and Epigenetic Aspects of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: Modern View on the Problem. Biomedicines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines12020399"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3043","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.3043","article-title":"Gut Microbiome in Type 1 Diabetes: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"34","author":"Zheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2340","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)30507-4","article-title":"Environmental Risk Factors for Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"387","author":"Rewers","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2023.103114","article-title":"The Gut Ecosystem and Immune Tolerance","volume":"141","author":"Shao","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csbj.2020.12.008","article-title":"Exploring the Impact of Intestinal Ion Transport on the Gut Microbiota","volume":"19","author":"Engevik","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Struct. Biotechnol. J"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1038\/s41422-020-0332-7","article-title":"Interaction between Microbiota and Immunity in Health and Disease","volume":"30","author":"Zheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00458","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.00458","article-title":"Cohabiting Family Members Share Microbiota with One Another and with Their Dogs","volume":"2","author":"Song","year":"2013","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stinson, L.F., Boyce, M.C., Payne, M.S., and Keelan, J.A. (2019). The Not-so-Sterile Womb: Evidence That the Human Fetus Is Exposed to Bacteria Prior to Birth. Front. Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.01124"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yin, H., Yu, J., Wu, W., Li, X., and Hu, R. (2023). Analysis of the Microbiome in Maternal, Intrauterine and Fetal Environments Based on 16S rRNA Genes Following Different Durations of Membrane Rupture. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-41777-z"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"237ra65","article-title":"The Placenta Harbors a Unique Microbiome","volume":"6","author":"Aagaard","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11971","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1002601107","article-title":"Delivery Mode Shapes the Acquisition and Structure of the Initial Microbiota across Multiple Body Habitats in Newborns","volume":"107","author":"Costello","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Su\u00e1rez-Mart\u00ednez, C., Santaella-Pascual, M., Yag\u00fce-Guirao, G., and Mart\u00ednez-Graci\u00e1, C. (2023). Infant Gut Microbiota Colonization: Influence of Prenatal and Postnatal Factors, Focusing on Diet. Front. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2023.1236254"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1017\/ice.2019.28","article-title":"The Human Microbiota and Infection Prevention","volume":"40","author":"Araos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infect. Control. Hosp. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bdj.2016.865","article-title":"The Oral Microbiome\u2014An Update for Oral Healthcare Professionals","volume":"221","author":"Kilian","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zaura, E., Keijser, B.J.F., Huse, S.M., and Crielaard, W. (2009). Defining the Healthy \u201cCore Microbiome\u201d of Oral Microbial Communities. BMC Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-9-259"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burcham, Z.M., Garneau, N.L., Comstock, S.S., Tucker, R.M., Knight, R., and Metcalf, J.L. (2020). Genetics of Taste Lab Citizen Scientists Patterns of Oral Microbiota Diversity in Adults and Children: A Crowdsourced Population Study. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-59016-0"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1177\/0022034513488119","article-title":"Microbial Geography of the Oral Cavity","volume":"92","author":"Catalan","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caselli, E., Fabbri, C., D\u2019Accolti, M., Soffritti, I., Bassi, C., Mazzacane, S., and Franchi, M. (2020). Defining the Oral Microbiome by Whole-Genome Sequencing and Resistome Analysis: The Complexity of the Healthy Picture. BMC Microbiol., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-020-01801-y"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e4458","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.4458","article-title":"Characterization of the Salivary Microbiome in People with Obesity","volume":"6","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ogawa, T., Hirose, Y., Honda-Ogawa, M., Sugimoto, M., Sasaki, S., Kibi, M., Kawabata, S., Ikebe, K., and Maeda, Y. (2018). Composition of Salivary Microbiota in Elderly Subjects. Sci. Rep., 8.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-18677-0"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iebba, V., Zanotta, N., Campisciano, G., Zerbato, V., Di Bella, S., Cason, C., Luzzati, R., Confalonieri, M., Palamara, A.T., and Comar, M. (2021). Profiling of Oral Microbiota and Cytokines in COVID-19 Patients. Front. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.671813"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1067\/mpr.2001.113778","article-title":"A Review of Saliva: Normal Composition, Flow, and Function","volume":"85","author":"Humphrey","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Prosthet. Dent."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1177\/00220345231160747","article-title":"High-Resolution Detection of Translocation of Oral Bacteria to the Gut","volume":"102","author":"Kageyama","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e42693","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.42693","article-title":"Extensive Transmission of Microbes along the Gastrointestinal Tract","volume":"8","author":"Schmidt","year":"2019","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15140","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1814558116","article-title":"Loss of Gut Barrier Integrity Triggers Activation of Islet-Reactive T Cells and Autoimmune Diabetes","volume":"116","author":"Sorini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Antonini, M., Lo Conte, M., Sorini, C., and Falcone, M. (2019). How the Interplay Between the Commensal Microbiota, Gut Barrier Integrity, and Mucosal Immunity Regulates Brain Autoimmunity. Front. Immunol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01937"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1443","DOI":"10.2337\/db05-1593","article-title":"Zonulin Upregulation Is Associated with Increased Gut Permeability in Subjects with Type 1 Diabetes and Their Relatives","volume":"55","author":"Sapone","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"264","article-title":"Altered Intestinal Permeability to Mannitol in Diabetes Mellitus Type I","volume":"28","author":"Secondulfo","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.2790","article-title":"Association between Intestinal Permeability and Faecal Microbiota Composition in Italian Children with Beta Cell Autoimmunity at Risk for Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"32","author":"Maffeis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2178","DOI":"10.2337\/dc18-0777","article-title":"Intestinal Metaproteomics Reveals Host-Microbiota Interactions in Subjects at Risk for Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"41","author":"Gavin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1080\/07853890.2016.1222449","article-title":"Is There a Role for Gut Microbiota in Type 1 Diabetes Pathogenesis?","volume":"49","author":"Dore","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Del Chierico, F., Rapini, N., Deodati, A., Matteoli, M.C., Cianfarani, S., and Putignani, L. (2022). Pathophysiology of Type 1 Diabetes and Gut Microbiota Role. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232314650"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R167","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-14-0874","article-title":"Mechanisms in Endocrinology: Gut Microbiota in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"172","author":"Allin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.2337\/dc10-1676","article-title":"Endotoxemia Is Associated with an Increased Risk of Incident Diabetes","volume":"34","author":"Pussinen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bedi, S., Richardson, T.M., Jia, B., Saab, H., Brinkman, F.S.L., and Westley, M. (2022). Similarities between Bacterial GAD and Human GAD65: Implications in Gut Mediated Autoimmune Type 1 Diabetes. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.11.29.470330"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1665","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-009-1394-8","article-title":"Increased Levels of Ligands of Toll-like Receptors 2 and 4 in Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"52","author":"Devaraj","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6356","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-33656-4","article-title":"Functional and Metabolic Alterations of Gut Microbiota in Children with New-Onset Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"13","author":"Yuan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.04.007","article-title":"Variation in Microbiome LPS Immunogenicity Contributes to Autoimmunity in Humans","volume":"165","author":"Vatanen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/1478-811X-10-22","article-title":"Regulation of Toll-like Receptor 4-Mediated Immune Responses through Pasteurella Multocida Toxin-Induced G Protein Signalling","volume":"10","author":"Hildebrand","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell Commun. Signal."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humic.2017.11.002","article-title":"Gut Microbiota Diversity and T1DM Onset: Preliminary Data of a Case-Control Study","volume":"5\u20136","author":"Traversi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Microbiome J."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mej\u00eda-Le\u00f3n, M.E., Petrosino, J.F., Ajami, N.J., Dom\u00ednguez-Bello, M.G., and de la Barca, A.M.C. (2014). Fecal Microbiota Imbalance in Mexican Children with Type 1 Diabetes. Sci. Rep., 4.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep03814"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2010.92","article-title":"Toward Defining the Autoimmune Microbiome for Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"5","author":"Giongo","year":"2011","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1238","DOI":"10.2337\/db12-0526","article-title":"Fecal Microbiota Composition Differs between Children with \u03b2-Cell Autoimmunity and Those without","volume":"62","author":"Knip","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2015.01.001","article-title":"The Dynamics of the Human Infant Gut Microbiome in Development and in Progression toward Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"17","author":"Kostic","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2006","DOI":"10.2337\/db13-1676","article-title":"Compromised Gut Microbiota Networks in Children with Anti-Islet Cell Autoimmunity","volume":"63","author":"Endesfelder","year":"2014","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3621","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-11460-x","article-title":"Genetic Risk for Autoimmunity Is Associated with Distinct Changes in the Human Gut Microbiome","volume":"10","author":"Russell","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2018.08.010","article-title":"The Bacteriome at the Onset of Type 1 Diabetes: A Study from Four Geographically Distant African and Asian Countries","volume":"144","author":"Cinek","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.2337\/dc14-0850","article-title":"Early Childhood Gut Microbiomes Show Strong Geographic Differences among Subjects at High Risk for Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"38","author":"Kemppainen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2385","DOI":"10.2337\/dc18-0253","article-title":"Gut Microbiota Differs in Composition and Functionality Between Children with Type 1 Diabetes and MODY2 and Healthy Control Subjects: A Case-Control Study","volume":"41","author":"Tinahones","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3510","DOI":"10.2337\/db14-1847","article-title":"Alterations in Intestinal Microbiota Correlate with Susceptibility to Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"64","author":"Alkanani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fusco, W., Lorenzo, M.B., Cintoni, M., Porcari, S., Rinninella, E., Kaitsas, F., Lener, E., Mele, M.C., Gasbarrini, A., and Collado, M.C. (2023). Short-Chain Fatty-Acid-Producing Bacteria: Key Components of the Human Gut Microbiota. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15092211"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"d\u2019Hennezel, E., Abubucker, S., Murphy, L.O., and Cullen, T.W. (2017). Total Lipopolysaccharide from the Human Gut Microbiome Silences Toll-Like Receptor Signaling. mSystems, 2.","DOI":"10.1128\/mSystems.00046-17"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fedulovs, A., Pahirko, L., Jekabsons, K., Kunrade, L., Valeinis, J., Riekstina, U., P\u012br\u0101gs, V., and Sokolovska, J. (2023). Association of Endotoxemia with Low-Grade Inflammation, Metabolic Syndrome and Distinct Response to Lipopolysaccharide in Type 1 Diabetes. Biomedicines, 11.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-2780541\/v1"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lo Conte, M., Cosorich, I., Ferrarese, R., Antonini Cencicchio, M., Nobili, A., Palmieri, V., Massimino, L., Lamparelli, L.A., Liang, W., and Riba, M. (2023). Alterations of the Intestinal Mucus Layer Correlate with Dysbiosis and Immune Dysregulation in Human Type 1 Diabetes. eBioMedicine, 91.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2023.104567"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Murri, M., Leiva, I., Gomez-Zumaquero, J.M., Tinahones, F.J., Cardona, F., Soriguer, F., and Queipo-Ortu\u00f1o, M.I. (2013). Gut Microbiota in Children with Type 1 Diabetes Differs from That in Healthy Children: A Case-Control Study. BMC Med, 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1741-7015-11-46"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brown, C.T., Davis-Richardson, A.G., Giongo, A., Gano, K.A., Crabb, D.B., Mukherjee, N., Casella, G., Drew, J.C., Ilonen, J., and Knip, M. (2011). Gut Microbiome Metagenomics Analysis Suggests a Functional Model for the Development of Autoimmunity for Type 1 Diabetes. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0025792"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1298","DOI":"10.4103\/0366-6999.182841","article-title":"Imbalance of Fecal Microbiota at Newly Diagnosed Type 1 Diabetes in Chinese Children","volume":"129","author":"Qi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chin. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davis-Richardson, A.G., Ardissone, A.N., Dias, R., Simell, V., Leonard, M.T., Kemppainen, K.M., Drew, J.C., Schatz, D., Atkinson, M.A., and Kolaczkowski, B. (2014). Bacteroides dorei Dominates Gut Microbiome Prior to Autoimmunity in Finnish Children at High Risk for Type 1 Diabetes. Front. Microbiol., 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2014.00678"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matos, J., Matos, I., Calha, M., Santos, P., Duarte, I., Cardoso, Y., and Faleiro, M.L. (2021). Insights from Bacteroides Species in Children with Type 1 Diabetes. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9071436"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heintz-Buschart, A., May, P., Laczny, C.C., Lebrun, L.A., Bellora, C., Krishna, A., Wampach, L., Schneider, J.G., Hogan, A., and de Beaufort, C. (2016). Integrated Multi-Omics of the Human Gut Microbiome in a Case Study of Familial Type 1 Diabetes. Nat. Microbiol., 2.","DOI":"10.1038\/nmicrobiol.2016.180"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0620-2","article-title":"The Human Gut Microbiome in Early-Onset Type 1 Diabetes from the TEDDY Study","volume":"562","author":"Vatanen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1093\/bfgp\/elae004","article-title":"Predicting the Role of the Human Gut Microbiome in Type 1 Diabetes Using Machine-Learning Methods","volume":"23","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brief Funct. Genom."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, K., Li, J., Li, X., Huang, J., and Zhou, Z. (2023). Emerging Trends and Focus on the Link between Gut Microbiota and Type 1 Diabetes: A Bibliometric and Visualization Analysis. Front. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2023.1137595"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115648","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2021.115648","article-title":"Machine Learning Analysis of the Human Infant Gut Microbiome Identifies Influential Species in Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"185","year":"2021","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"dgaa407","DOI":"10.1210\/clinem\/dgaa407","article-title":"Gut Microbiota in T1DM-Onset Pediatric Patients: Machine-Learning Algorithms to Classify Microorganisms as Disease Linked","volume":"105","author":"Biassoni","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2023.11.025","article-title":"Machine Learning Approach Reveals Microbiome, Metabolome, and Lipidome Profiles in Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"64","author":"Tan","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mokhtari, P., Jambal, P., Metos, J.M., Shankar, K., and Anandh Babu, P.V. (2023). Microbial Taxonomic and Functional Shifts in Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes Are Associated with Clinical and Dietary Factors. eBioMedicine, 93.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2023.104641"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Endesfelder, D., Engel, M., Davis-Richardson, A.G., Ardissone, A.N., Achenbach, P., Hummel, S., Winkler, C., Atkinson, M., Schatz, D., and Triplett, E. (2016). Towards a Functional Hypothesis Relating Anti-Islet Cell Autoimmunity to the Dietary Impact on Microbial Communities and Butyrate Production. Microbiome, 4.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-016-0163-4"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dedrick, S., Sundaresh, B., Huang, Q., Brady, C., Yoo, T., Cronin, C., Rudnicki, C., Flood, M., Momeni, B., and Ludvigsson, J. (2020). The Role of Gut Microbiota and Environmental Factors in Type 1 Diabetes Pathogenesis. Front. Endocrinol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2020.00078"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiong, R.-G., Zhou, D.-D., Wu, S.-X., Huang, S.-Y., Saimaiti, A., Yang, Z.-J., Shang, A., Zhao, C.-N., Gan, R.-Y., and Li, H.-B. (2022). Health Benefits and Side Effects of Short-Chain Fatty Acids. Foods, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods11182863"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Winther, S.A., Mannerla, M.M., Frimodt-M\u00f8ller, M., Persson, F., Hansen, T.W., Lehto, M., H\u00f6rkk\u00f6, S., Blaut, M., Forsblom, C., and Groop, P.-H. (2021). Faecal Biomarkers in Type 1 Diabetes with and without Diabetic Nephropathy. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-94747-8"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2015.1134082","article-title":"Formation of Short Chain Fatty Acids by the Gut Microbiota and Their Impact on Human Metabolism","volume":"7","author":"Morrison","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gut. Microbes"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-024-01014-8","article-title":"Short-Chain Fatty Acids: Linking Diet, the Microbiome and Immunity","volume":"24","author":"Mann","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201848009","article-title":"Short-Chain Fatty Acids: Bacterial Messengers Modulating the Immunometabolism of T Cells","volume":"49","author":"Luu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1042\/CS20210778","article-title":"Gut Microbiota-Derived Butyrate Regulates Gut Mucus Barrier Repair by Activating the Macrophage\/WNT\/ERK Signaling Pathway","volume":"136","author":"Liang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12721","article-title":"Commensal Microbe-Derived Butyrate Induces the Differentiation of Colonic Regulatory T Cells","volume":"504","author":"Furusawa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2120","DOI":"10.2337\/db10-1201","article-title":"Defective Differentiation of Regulatory FoxP3+ T Cells by Small-Intestinal Dendritic Cells in Patients with Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"60","author":"Badami","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2023.102132","article-title":"Distinct Signatures of Gut Microbiota and Metabolites in Different Types of Diabetes: A Population-Based Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"62","author":"Hu","year":"2023","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bell, K.J., Saad, S., Tillett, B.J., McGuire, H.M., Bordbar, S., Yap, Y.A., Nguyen, L.T., Wilkins, M.R., Corley, S., and Brodie, S. (2022). Metabolite-Based Dietary Supplementation in Human Type 1 Diabetes Is Associated with Microbiota and Immune Modulation. Microbiome, 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-021-01193-9"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12726","article-title":"Metabolites Produced by Commensal Bacteria Promote Peripheral Regulatory T Cell Generation","volume":"504","author":"Arpaia","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2075","DOI":"10.1902\/jop.2005.76.11-S.2075","article-title":"A Proposed Model Linking Inflammation to Obesity, Diabetes, and Periodontal Infections","volume":"76","author":"Genco","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"St\u00f8rling, J., and Pociot, F. (2017). Type 1 Diabetes Candidate Genes Linked to Pancreatic Islet Cell Inflammation and Beta-Cell Apoptosis. Genes, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes8020072"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1159\/000342624","article-title":"Periodontal Health of Children with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus in Kuwait: A Case-Control Study","volume":"22","author":"Hasan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Med. Princ. Pract."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1590\/2359-3997000000117","article-title":"da S. The Influence of Glycemic Control on the Oral Health of Children and Adolescents with Diabetes Mellitus Type 1","volume":"59","author":"Carneiro","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vila, T., Rizk, A.M., Sultan, A.S., and Jabra-Rizk, M.A. (2019). The Power of Saliva: Antimicrobial and Beyond. PLoS Pathog., 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1008058"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Torrungruang, K., Jitpakdeebordin, S., Charatkulangkun, O., and Gleebbua, Y. (2015). Porphyromonas gingivalis, Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, and Treponema denticola\/Prevotella intermedia Co-Infection Are Associated with Severe Periodontitis in a Thai Population. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0136646"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Plemmenos, G., and Piperi, C. (2022). Pathogenic Molecular Mechanisms in Periodontitis and Peri-Implantitis: Role of Advanced Glycation End Products. Life, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/life12020218"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, X., Daliri, E.B.-M., Kim, N., Kim, J.-R., Yoo, D., and Oh, D.-H. (2020). Microbial Etiology and Prevention of Dental Caries: Exploiting Natural Products to Inhibit Cariogenic Biofilms. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9070569"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Selway, C.A., Jensen, E.D., Pena, A.S., Smart, G., and Weyrich, L.S. (2023). Type 1 Diabetes, Periodontal Health, and a Familial History of Hyperlipidaemia Is Associated with Oral Microbiota in Children: A Cross-Sectional Study. BMC Oral. Health, 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12903-022-02625-0"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Groot, P.F., Belzer, C., Aydin, \u00d6., Levin, E., Levels, J.H., Aalvink, S., Boot, F., Holleman, F., van Raalte, D.H., and Scheithauer, T.P. (2017). Distinct Fecal and Oral Microbiota Composition in Human Type 1 Diabetes, an Observational Study. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0188475"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.5114\/pedm.2021.104343","article-title":"Oral Microbiota in Children with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"27","author":"Mertas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pediatr. Endocrinol. Diabetes Metab."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abola, I., Gudra, D., Ustinova, M., Fridmanis, D., Emulina, D.E., Skadins, I., Brinkmane, A., Lauga-Tunina, U., Gailite, L., and Auzenbaha, M. (2023). Oral Microbiome Traits of Type 1 Diabetes and Phenylketonuria Patients in Latvia. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11061471"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moskovitz, M., Nassar, M., Moriel, N., Cher, A., Faibis, S., Ram, D., Zangen, D., Yassour, M., and Steinberg, D. (2021). Characterization of the Oral Microbiome Among Children with Type 1 Diabetes Compared With Healthy Children. Front. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.756808"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1111\/idj.12530","article-title":"Clinical and Microbial Oral Health Status in Children and Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"70","author":"Babatzia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carelli, M., Maguolo, A., Zusi, C., Olivieri, F., Emiliani, F., De Grandi, G., Unali, I., Zerman, N., Signoretto, C., and Maffeis, C. (2023). Oral Microbiota in Children and Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: Novel Insights into the Pathogenesis of Dental and Periodontal Disease. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11030668"},{"key":"ref_107","first-page":"E175","article-title":"Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus and Periodontal Disease: Relationship to Different Clinical Variables","volume":"14","author":"Silvestre","year":"2009","journal-title":"Med. Oral. Patol. Oral. Cir. Bucal."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, X., Wu, J., Chen, R., Chen, Z., Su, Z., Ni, J., Zhang, M., Sun, C., Zhang, F., and Liu, Y. (2022). Characterization of the Oral Microbiome of Children with Type 1 Diabetes in the Acute and Chronic Phases. J. Oral. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.1080\/20002297.2022.2094048"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kunath, B.J., Hickl, O., Queir\u00f3s, P., Martin-Gallausiaux, C., Lebrun, L.A., Halder, R., Laczny, C.C., Schmidt, T.S.B., Hayward, M.R., and Becher, D. (2022). Alterations of Oral Microbiota and Impact on the Gut Microbiome in Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus Revealed by Integrated Multi-Omic Analyses. Microbiome, 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-022-01435-4"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2022.03.007","article-title":"Roles of Oral Microbiota and Oral-Gut Microbial Transmission in Hypertension","volume":"43","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1093\/ibd\/izac241","article-title":"The Oral-Gut Axis: Periodontal Diseases and Gastrointestinal Disorders","volume":"29","author":"Lam","year":"2023","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Segata, N., Haake, S.K., Mannon, P., Lemon, K.P., Waldron, L., Gevers, D., Huttenhower, C., and Izard, J. (2012). Composition of the Adult Digestive Tract Bacterial Microbiome Based on Seven Mouth Surfaces, Tonsils, Throat and Stool Samples. Genome Biol., 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/gb-2012-13-6-r42"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13178","article-title":"Dynamics and Associations of Microbial Community Types across the Human Body","volume":"509","author":"Ding","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2024.110252","article-title":"The Profile of Blood Microbiome in New-Onset Type 1 Diabetes Children","volume":"27","author":"Yuan","year":"2024","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, L., Gong, C., Wang, R., Wang, J., Yang, Z., and Wang, X. (2024). A Pilot Study on the Characterization and Correlation of Oropharyngeal and Intestinal Microbiota in Children with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus. Front. Pediatr., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2024.1382466"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7546047","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/7546047","article-title":"The Dynamic Interplay between the Gut Microbiota and Autoimmune Diseases","volume":"2019","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khor, B., Snow, M., Herrman, E., Ray, N., Mansukhani, K., Patel, K.A., Said-Al-Naief, N., Maier, T., and Machida, C.A. (2021). Interconnections Between the Oral and Gut Microbiomes: Reversal of Microbial Dysbiosis and the Balance Between Systemic Health and Disease. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9030496"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Wang, H., Liu, Y., Shi, M., Zhang, M., Zhang, H., and Chen, J. (2024). Advances in Fecal Microbiota Transplantation for the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1370999"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Winiarska-Mieczan, A., Tomaszewska, E., Donaldson, J., and Jachimowicz, K. (2022). The Role of Nutritional Factors in the Modulation of the Composition of the Gut Microbiota in People with Autoimmune Diabetes. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14122498"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpg.2003.10.008","article-title":"Microbial-Gut Interactions in Health and Disease. Prebiotics","volume":"18","author":"Manning","year":"2004","journal-title":"Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1007\/s00592-020-01563-z","article-title":"The Crucial Role of Early-Life Gut Microbiota in the Development of Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"58","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1186\/s40814-023-01373-4","article-title":"Evaluating the Effect of Prebiotics on the Gut Microbiome Profile and \u03b2 Cell Function in Youth with Newly Diagnosed Type 1 Diabetes: Protocol of a Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"9","author":"Ismail","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pilot Feasibility Stud."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4427","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2019-00481","article-title":"Effect of Prebiotic on Microbiota, Intestinal Permeability, and Glycemic Control in Children with Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"104","author":"Ho","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1007\/s11894-019-0740-3","article-title":"Probiotics, Nutrition, and the Small Intestine","volume":"22","author":"Judkins","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Gastroenterol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1081","DOI":"10.1007\/s40200-022-01006-2","article-title":"Evidence and Possible Mechanisms of Probiotics in the Management of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"21","author":"Dovi","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Metab. Disord."},{"key":"ref_126","first-page":"215","article-title":"Diabetes Management by Probiotics: Current Knowledge and Future Pespective","volume":"86","author":"Soroush","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2023097","DOI":"10.1590\/1984-0462\/2024\/42\/2023097","article-title":"Use of Probiotics and Similar in Pediatric Patients with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review","volume":"42","author":"Neiva","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rev. Paul. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1014","DOI":"10.1111\/pedi.13244","article-title":"A High Potency Multi-Strain Probiotic Improves Glycemic Control in Children with New-Onset Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: A Randomized, Double-Blind, and Placebo-Controlled Pilot Study","volume":"22","author":"Kumar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pediatr. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lokesh, M.N., Kumar, R., Jacob, N., Sachdeva, N., Rawat, A., Yadav, J., and Dayal, D. (2024). Supplementation of High-Strength Oral Probiotics Improves Immune Regulation and Preserves Beta Cells among Children with New-Onset Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: A Randomised, Double-Blind Placebo Control Trial. Indian J. Pediatr., online ahead of print.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12098-024-05074-5"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e001523","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjdrc-2020-001523","article-title":"Lack of Effect of Lactobacillus Rhamnosus GG and Bifidobacterium Lactis Bb12 on Beta-Cell Function in Children with Newly Diagnosed Type 1 Diabetes: A Randomised Controlled Trial","volume":"9","author":"Groele","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Open Diabetes Res. Care"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/73.2.361s","article-title":"Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Synbiotics\u2014Approaching a Definition","volume":"73","author":"Schrezenmeir","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Yang, J., Qiu, X., Wen, Q., Liu, M., Zhou, D., and Chen, Q. (2021). Probiotics, Pre-Biotics and Synbiotics in the Treatment of Pre-Diabetes: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. Front. Public Health, 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2021.645035"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2024.03.006","article-title":"Probiotics and Synbiotics for Glycemic Control in Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials","volume":"43","author":"Baroni","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.13345","article-title":"Can Fecal Microbiota Transplantations Modulate Autoimmune Responses in Type 1 Diabetes?","volume":"325","author":"Wortelboer","year":"2024","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2020-322630","article-title":"Faecal Microbiota Transplantation Halts Progression of Human New-Onset Type 1 Diabetes in a Randomised Controlled Trial","volume":"70","author":"Nikolic","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zou, B., Liu, S.-X., Li, X.-S., He, J.-Y., Dong, C., Ruan, M.-L., Xu, L., Bai, T., Huang, Z.-H., and Shu, S.-N. (2022). Long-Term Safety and Efficacy of Fecal Microbiota Transplantation in 74 Children: A Single-Center Retrospective Study. Front. Pediatr., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2022.964154"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, L., Chen, R., Zhang, B., Zhang, S., Khan, B.A., Zhu, D., Wu, Z., Xiao, C., Chen, B., and Chen, F. (2022). Fecal Microbiota Transplantation Treatment of Autoimmune-Mediated Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.930872"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crudele, L., Gadaleta, R.M., Cariello, M., and Moschetta, A. (2023). Gut Microbiota in the Pathogenesis and Therapeutic Approaches of Diabetes. eBioMedicine, 97.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2023.104821"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/25\/19\/10611\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:09:02Z","timestamp":1760112542000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/25\/19\/10611"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,2]]},"references-count":138,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms251910611"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms251910611","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,2]]}}}